Imbali Biology Developmental. Uphuhliso eziphilayo lwangoku

Ukususela kwiintsuku zokuqala zobomi, umntwana ufuna ukwazi umhlaba ojikelezile. Umdala uya kuba, unomdla ngakumbi kwaye uyamangalisa uba ngowona. Ihlabathi liyatshintsha kunye naye. Ngoko bonke uluntu ekuphuhlisweni kwalo alumi. Zonke izitsha ezitsha zisibamba. Into eyayingenakwenzeka izolo yayiba ngumsebenzi namhlanje. Igalelo elikhulu kwiinkwenkwezi zenzululwazi kunye nezobuchwepheshe zenzululwazi ye-biology. Uhlola zonke iinkalo zobomi, uhlola izigaba zemvelaphi kunye nophuhliso lwezinto eziphilayo. Kuyaphawuleka ukuba le nzululwazi yahlukaniswa kwisebe elithile kuphela ngekhulu le-19, nangona uluntu lwalufumana ulwazi malunga nehlabathi elijikelezayo ngexesha lokuphuhliswa kwalo lonke. Imbali yokuphuhliswa kwezinto ze-biology inomdla kakhulu kwaye iyonwabisa. Abantu abaninzi banokuba nombuzo: kutheni sifundelwe le nzu lulwazi? Kubonakala ngathi izazinzulu zenze oko. Lo myalelo uza kunceda njani umntu oqhelekileyo? Kodwa emva koko, ngaphandle kolwazi olusisiseko lwe-physiology yabantu kunye ne-anatomy akunakwenzeka, umz Le nzu lulwazi lunikezela iimpendulo kwimibandela enzima kakhulu. Into ephambili yokuba i-biology ikwazi ukukhanyisa kukuphuhliswa kobomi emhlabeni.

Isayensi ngemihla yakudala

I-biology yanamhlanje ingcambu yayo. Ingxulunyaniswa ngokungahambi kakuhle nokuphuhliswa kwemiphakathi ngexesha elidlulileyo kwiMeditera. Izinto zokuqala ezifunyenweyo kule ndawo zenziwe ngamanani afanelekileyo njengoHippocrates, uAristotle, Theophrastus nabanye. Igalelo lenzululwazi ekuphuhliseni i-biology alixabanga. Makhe sihlale kwiinkcukacha ngakumbi ngamnye. Udokotela waseGrike wamaGrike uHippocrates (460 - malunga no-370 BC) wanikeza inkcazo yokuqala yenkcazo yesakhiwo somzimba kunye nezilwanyana. Wachaza indlela iimeko ezingqongileyo kunye nokuphila kwindalo zingathintela ngayo uphuhliso lwezifo ezithile. Iingcali zanamhlanje zibiza uHippocrates umsunguli weyeza. Ifilosofi esaziwayo yeGrike nengcali yefilosofi u-Aristotle (384-322 BC) wahlula ihlabathi elijikelezayo ukuba libe zikumkani ezine: ihlabathi lomntu nezilwanyana, umhlaba wezityalo, umhlaba ongapheliyo (umhlaba jikelele), umhlaba wamanzi kunye nomoya. Yenza inkcazelo eninzi yezilwanyana, ngaloo ndlela iqalisa inkqubo. Isandla sakhe sisezintlu ezine zezinto eziphilayo, eziqulethe zonke ilwazi ngexesha lezilwanyana. Kule meko, ososayensi akanikanga nje inkcazo yangaphandle yabameli balobu bukumkani, kodwa nayo ibonakalisa imvelaphi yabo nokuvelisa. Wayengowokuqala ukuchaza ukuzalwa okukhoyo kweentlanzi kunye nobukho bezinto ezikhethekileyo zokuhlafuna emanzini ase-sea, namhlanje ebizwa ngokuthi "umbane waseAristoteli." Oososayensi banamhlanje baxabisa impumelelo yombono wamandulo kwaye bakholelwa ukuba uAristotle ngumsunguli wezilwanyana. Ifilosofi yasendulo yamaGrike iTheophrastus (370-malunga ne-280 BC) yafunda ihlabathi lezityalo. Wachaza abameli abangaphezu kwama-500 balo bukumkani. Nguye owazisa amagama amaninzi ezityalo, ezifana "neziqhamo", "i-pericarp", "ingundoqo" njalo njalo. I-Theophrastus izazinzulu zithatha isiseko se-botany zanamhlanje.

Kwakhona kubalulekile ukuphawula ngumsebenzi ekuphuhlisweni kwezinto eziphilayo zenzululwazi zaseRoma zakudala, ezifana noGuy Pliny Umdala (22-79) noClaudius Galen (iminyaka eyi-131 - malunga ne-200). UMvelisi uPliny Umdala wabhala i-encyclopedia enesihloko esithi "Imbali Yendalo", equle yonke into eyaziwayo ngeli xesha malunga nolwazi oluphilayo malunga nezinto eziphilayo. Kuze kube ngama-Middle Ages, umsebenzi wakhe, obala ama-volumes 37, ngowona kuphela umthombo ogcweleyo wolwazi malunga nendalo. Udokotela ogqirhayo, ugqirha kunye nomfilosofi wexesha lakhe, uClaudius Galen, wenza igalelo elikhulu kwimbono nokuphuhliswa kwezo nzu lulwazi njenge-anatomy, i-pharmacology, i-physiology, i-neurology, njl. Wayengowokuqala ukuchaza nokuthelekisa indlela yokuphila komntu kunye nesilwanyana. Injongo yaso ephambili kwakukufunda isistim somnatha kunye nendawo. Ukuqatshelwa kweenkonzo zakhe ngabalingane kuboniswa kukuba umsebenzi wakhe kwi-anatomy esekelwe ekuvuleleni izidumbu zeengulube kunye neenkomo zazisetyenziswa ukuya ku-1543, kwaze kwaba yilapho umsebenzi ka-Andreas Vesalius "uvela kwiSebe loBuntu" kubonakala. Abafundi bamaziko ogqirha bafunde ngemisebenzi kaGalen de ukuya kwiXIXX Kwaye inkolelo yakhe yokuba ubuchopho bulawula ukuhamba kunye noncedo lwenkqubo ye-nervous isebenzayo namhlanje. Kungcono ukuqonda indlela ukuvela kunye nokufundisisa le nzu lulwazi kwenzeni kwimbali, i-table ye "Development of Biology" iya kusinceda. Abasunguli bayo abasemgangathweni bayamelwa apha.

LweMidiya ephakathi

Igalelo lenzululwazi ekuphuhliseni i-biology kulezi zihlandlo likhulu. Ukwaziswa kwamanani aseGrike namaRoma amandulo afakwe kwiinkqubo zabo oogqirha bama-Middle Ages. Kwakuyiyeza elaphuhliswa ngelo xesha. Inxalenye ebalulekileyo yintsimi yoBukumkani baseRoma ngeli xesha layiswa yiArabhu. Ngoko ke, imisebenzi ka-Aristotle kunye nabanye abaphengululi beemandulo basifikela kwisiArabhu. Yintoni ephawule eli xesha ngokwemveliso yophuhliso lwe-biology? Eli lixesha lexesha elibizwa ngokuba yi-golden age of Islam. Nantsi kubalulekile ukuphawula imisebenzi yeso senzululwazi njengo-Al-Jahiz, owathi ngokokuqala ngethuba wabonisa uluvo malunga nokutya kunye nokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Kwakhona ungumsekeli wendawo yokuma komhlaba - inzululwazi yempembelelo yeemeko zendalo ekuvelweni komlingiswa wesizwe kunye nomoya. Kwaye umbhali waseKurdish u-Ahmad ibn Daoud u-Dinavari wenza okuninzi ekuphuhliseni i-botany yase-Arab. Wenza inkcazelo yezidalwa ezingaphezu kwama-637 zezityalo ezahlukeneyo. Inzala enkulu kwihlabathi leentlanzi ibangelwa ukuthambekela kwamachiza ukunyanga amayeza emfuyo. Ugqirha wasePersia - uMuhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi - wafikelela ngokuphakama okukhulu kwiyeza. Wazama ukuphikisa ingcamango yokulawula yeGalen malunga "neentsuku zokuphila ezine". Ugqirha ogqwesileyo wasePersi uAvicenna wadala enye yeencwadi ezibalulekileyo kwiimachiza ezibizwa ngokuthi "I-Canon yezoNzululwazi lwezoNyango", eyayiyincwadi yeengcali zeYurophu ukuya kwikhulu le-17. Kufanelekile ukuvuma ukuba phakathi neMinyaka Ephakathi, ezimbalwa izazinzulu ziye zazuza udumo. Le yimiba yexesha lexesha le-theology kunye nefilosofi. Iyeza zenzululwazi zaye zahla. Le meko yemicimbi yabonwa kwada kwaqala ekuqaleni koKuvuselelwa. Emva koko, amanyathelo okuphuhliswa kwe-biology ngeli xesha liza kuchazwa.

Biology kwi-Renaissance

Ngenkulungwane XVI, umdla amalungu kunye nembali yemvelo luqilima eYurophu. Anatomists babeqhelisela asike ngayo imizimba yabantu emva kokufa. Ngowe-1543 wapapasha incwadi ebizwa Vesalius 'Ngomhla isakhiwo komzimba womntu. " History of biology yophuhliso esenza umjikelo omtsha. nonyango amakhambi kuxhaphakile amayeza. Oku nako, kodwa kuchaphazela umdla ikhula izihluma ehlabathini. Fuchs and Otto Brunfels kwiincwadi zakhe wabeka isiseko izityalo ezinkulu-scale ochazwe. Nkqu amagcisa yexesha babethanda isakhiwo izidumbu kwezilwanyana nabantu. Bona zaveza imifanekiso zabo, kwicala yokusebenza ecaleni kunye zemvelo. ULeonardo da Vinci kunye Albrecht Dürer kwinkqubo yokudala yobuciko bakhe bazama ukufumana inkcazelo eneenkcukacha komzimba lwemizimba ophilileyo. Eyokuqala kwezi, ngasendleleni, ngokufuthi ebukele ukubhabha iintaka, wathi izityalo ezininzi, ekwabelwana ulwazi kubume bomzimba womntu. Akukho igalelo kangako ukuba inzululwazi yelo xesha ozenzileyo izazinzulu ezifana abenzi bamachiza, Encyclopedic, oogqirha. Umzekelo woku izenzo Paracelsus. Ngoko ke, kucacile ukuba uphuhliso biology waba yokungalingani ngethuba pre-kaDarwin.

ngekhulu XVII

Ukufunyanwa ibalulekileyo yale xesha - le ukuvulwa wesibini kwegazi pulmonary, leyo umfutho omtsha kuphuhliso nokwakheka ukubonakala imfundiso ezincinane. Koko kwenziwe izifundo zokuqala ekuzakuqalwa ziye. Kuba okokuqala ukuba inkcazelo plant cells, nto leyo kuqwalaselwa kuphela phantsi ngemicroscope. Esi sixhobo, ngasendleleni, yaqanjwa John Lippersgeem kunye Zahariem Yansenom ngo-1590 e-Holland. Le fowuni isoloko iphuculwe. Yaye kungekudala Ingcibi Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, wayenomdla iimikroskopu, baye bakwazi ukubona ndibonise iiseli ezibomvu, amadlozi kwabantu, kwakunye nenani eziphilayo ezincinane kakhulu (iintsholongwane, ciliates, njalo njalo). Development of biology njenge inzululwazi ngeli xesha uya kwinqanaba entsha lonke. Kuninzi esele yenziwe endle amalungu kunye nokwakheka. Ugqirha ukusuka eNgilani, Uilyam Garvey, ityhila izilwanyana kunye nokuziphatha ophando kunye nokuhamba kwegazi, wenza inani yezinto ezibaluleke: A izivalo lwemithambo, ezisongwayo kwaba ventricles ekunene ekhohlo kwentliziyo. Igalelo lakhe kuphuhliso eziphilayo Kunzima ukuba zazi. Wavula kwegazi miphungeni. Isazinzulu evela eItali, Francesco Redi, kwaba nakwenzeka kwisizukulwana ezizenzekelayo izibawu iintsalela zenyama ebolileyo.

History of biology yophuhliso kwinkulungwane XVIII

Emva koko, umntu wokwazi zenzululwazi zendalo landiswa. Iziganeko ezibalulekileyo kwinkulungwane XVIII waqalisa kokupapashwa imisebenzi Karla Linneya ( "System of Nature") kunye Georges Buffon ( "Universal kunye nembali zabucala zendalo"). Senza amalinge amaninzi kummandla wophuhliso izityalo kunye nezilwanyana Embryology. Ezifunyaniswe yenziwa abaphengululi ezifana uCaspar Fridrih Volf, ngubani ngokwesiseko kokuma wabonisa uphuhliso chu umbungu a rudiment ixesha elide, kwaye Albrecht von Haller. Xa la magama ezinxulumene amanqanaba ibalulekileyo kuphuhliso eziphilayo kunye embryology ngenkulungwane XVIII. Nangona kunjalo, ukuze uqonde ukuba izazinzulu zedatha wakhuthaza iindlela ezahlukeneyo isifundo lenzululwazi: Wolf - iingcamango epigenetic (uphuhliso eziphilayo kwi amathupha), kunye Haller - amagama preformation (ubukho iiseli intsholongwane kwezakhiwo okukhethekile kusengaphambili uphuhliso bungu).

Science kwinkulungwane XIX

Kufanelekile ukuba sikhankanye ukuba uphuhliso eziphilayo njengoko inzululwazi yaqala kuphela kwinkulungwane XIX. Lo gama sele wasetyenziswa zizazinzulu ngaphambili. Noko ke, intsingiselo sahlukile ngokupheleleyo. Umzekelo, uKarl Linney wabiza zebhayoloji nabantu iibhayografi of zezityalo. Kodwa kamva eli gama ngokuba isayensi lifunda zonke izinto eziphilayo. izihloko ezifana kuphuhliso eziphilayo pre-kaDarwin kweli xesha, siye sele lwaveza. Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane XIX yaba ukuvela isayensi kwesayensi. Ezifunyaniswe kulo mhlaba ezidibene igama sisazinzulu mkhulu - ". The Origin of Species" UCharles Darwin, ngubani kwisiqingatha sesibini senkulungwane, wapapasha incwadi esihloko sithi Ukuze ufumane iinkcukacha ezingakumbi ngomsebenzi wakhe, siya kwenza kwisahluko esilandelayo. Ukuvela theory yeseli, ukuyilwa phylogenetics, uphuhliso ukwakheka esasinokubonwa cytology, ukuyilwa imfundiso kukuvela izifo ezosulelayo ngokuthi wokosulela pathogen ethile, kwakunye nokunye okuninzi - yonke enxulumene nophuhliso inzululwazi kwinkulungwane XIX.

Works of Charles Darwin

Incwadi yokuqala sisazinzulu kakhulu - i "naturalist ezinika ehlabathini lonke ngenqanawa." Ngaphezu koko, injongo ukufundisisa Darwin baba barnacles. Oku kuye kwabangela ukuba ukubhala nokupapasha umsebenzi-volume ezine amalungu ezi zilwanyana. Ukuba Izazi umsebenzi wakhe nangoku. Sekunjalo, umsebenzi omkhulu ka Charles Darwin - incwadi "The Origin of Species", nokuba nguwuphi, awawuqalayo ukubhala ngo-1837. Le ncwadi eya kuthi yongezwe ize iprintwe kwakhona izihlandlo eziliqela. It iinkcukacha ngayo iintlobo zezilwanyana zasekhaya kunye nezityalo neentlobo, thaca izimvo zakhe ngenketho yendalo. Mvelo biology yophuhliso umba Darwin - ke Ukwahluka lweentlobo emaXhoseni phantsi kwempembelelo kwimfuza kunye iimeko zangaphandle kokusingqongileyo, kwakunye imvelaphi yazo zendalo zenye ngaphambili. Le Isazinzulu bafika kwisigqibo sokuba nasiphi na isityalo okanye isilwanyana kwindalo lidla ukuba wande ngokucacileyo. Nangona kunjalo, inani labantu ezi zilwanyana lihlala rhoqo. Oku kuthetha ukuba uhlobo intshukumo umthetho ukusinda. eziphilayo Strong asinde ngokuthenga ngemiqondiso, ilincedo lonke uhlobo, uze nande, kwaye ababuthathaka - kubulawa kwiindawo ezinobutshaba. Oku kuthiwa zendalo ukhetho (zendalo). Umzekelo, i-cod nemazi luvelisa ukuya amaqanda kwezigidi ezisixhenxe. Eliphila% 2 kuphela inani lilonke. Kodwa iimeko zokusingqongileyo zinokutshintsha. Ke zibonakalise luncedo kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo kakhulu iimpawu. Ngenxa yoko, indlela lotshintsho zivunywa. Iimpawu yangaphandle abantu bangatshintsha. Kukho look entsha, abathe nokugcina izinto kakuhle ilungiswe. Kamva, ngowe-1868, uCharles Darwin wapapasha umsebenzi wakhe wesibini ulwalathiso yendaleko ebizwa ngokuba "Tshintsha lezilwanyana kunye nezityalo phantsi wekhaya." Noko ke, ngenxa yomsebenzi wakhe ngokubanzi. Kubalulekile ukukhankanya omnye umsebenzi obalulekileyo-nzulu enkulu - incwadi ethi 'The Descent of Man lokukhetha ngokwesondo ". Kuyo wamnika eninzi lweempikiswano wakhetha loo mntu bavela izinyanya lwenkawu-like.

Yintoni ke le XX ngenkulungwane?

ezifunyaniswe abaninzi jikelele kwinzululwazi lwenziwa kanye kwinkulungwane yokugqibela. Ngeli xesha, uphuhliso eziphilayo yabantu inika kwinqanaba elitsha. Eli xesha ngayo imizila yemfuza. Ngo-1920, idala imfundiso chromosomal kwimfuza. Emva ke kwesesibini kweMfazwe Yehlabathi, waqala ngokukhawuleza ukuphuhlisa ezinto eziphilayo. Ukutshintsha indlela eluhamba ngayo kuphuhliso eziphilayo.

genetics

Kulo nyaka-1900 aba, ngoko ukuthetha, bafumana imithetho Mendel kaThixo ngabaphengululi ezifana De Vries kunye nabanye. Kungekudala, oku walandelwa ukuvulwa cytology ukuba izinto genetic izakhiwo iseli equlethwe zofuzo. Ngowe-1910-1915, i-Group Working Isazinzulu Thomas Hunt Morgan, ngokusekelwe amalinge kunye neziqhamo iimpukane (Drosophila) lenze-ebizwa ngokuba 'chromosome theory Mendelian kwimfuza. " Izazi ziye zafumanisa ukuba zofuzo kwi zofuzo zilungiswe linearly kwi "amaso kwi umtya." De Vries --nzulu yokuqala owenze ingcamango malunga wezakhi sofuzo. Ngaphezu koko, lanikwa ingqikelelo kokushenxa yemfuza. Yaye ngowe-1980, i-yamachiza waseMelika Esalingwayo Luis Alvarez ecetywayo esibhakabhakeni hypothesis eziphilayo le Dinosaurs.

Ukuvela kunye nophuhliso eziphilayo

Nkqu ibalaseleyo ezifunyaniswe bemlindile izazinzulu kwixa elizayo. Ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane XX waqalisa iivithamini zophando esebenzayo. Kancinci ngaphambili wavula ityhefa indlela neziyobisi, iiprotheni, acids okunamafutha. Kule minyaka 1920-1930 izazinzulu uCarl Gerty Cori, noHans Krebs wanikela inkcazelo zinguquko ekudleni. Oku kwaphawula ukuqala isifundo Yindibanisela porphyrins kunye steroid. Ekupheleni kwenkulungwane, Fritz Lippmann wathola ilandelayo: triphosphate adenosine yathatyathwa njengomthuthi jikelele yamandla zengqo- esiseleni, kwaye kwamandla eyinhloko "zesikhululo," kwathiwa mitochondria. Izixhobo ze-eksperimenti elebhu waba zintsonkotha ngakumbi, kwakukho iindlela ezintsha zolwazi yokufumana, ezifana electrophoresis kunye chromatography. Eziphilayo yenye amasebe amayeza, kufumaneka ngesayensi eyahlukileyo.

ezinto eziphilayo

Zonke izifundo ezitsha ezinxulumene wabonakala kolu phando eziphilayo. Izazinzulu abaninzi baye bazama ukumisela uhlobo sofuzo. Ekuqhubeni uphando le njongo isithuba esitsha "ezinto eziphilayo". Injongo yophononongo kwi iintsholongwane neebhaktiriya. bacteriophage kukhethwa - yintsholongwane emane kuchaphazela iiseli ezithile iintsholongwane. Amalinge nawo kuqhutywa Drosophila, sokubumba isonka, umbona njalo njalo. Imbali eziphilayo wophuhliso kukuba izinto ezintsha zenziwa kunye nokuqaliswa izixhobo ezitsha ngokupheleleyo ngenxa yophando. Ngoko ke, ukuba kungekudala yasungulwa kwemikroskopu, kunye icentrifuge-high speed. Ezi zixhobo ziye zanceda izazinzulu ukuvula ziquka genetic material kwi zofuzo iqulathe i DNA kunokuba kwiproteni njengoko ndacinga ngaphambili; isakhiwo DNA kwabuyiselwa kwifomu siyazi namhlanje, i Helix kabini.

engineering genetic

Uphuhliso eziphilayo mihla na bemi ngxi. zobunjineli Genetic - lo ngomnye "eceleni" ndifunda olu qeqesho. Oku le inzululwazi, kufanele ukuvela iziyobisi ezithile, ezifana insulin kunye threonine. Nangona ukuba okwangoku kwinqanaba uphuhliso kunye nokufunda kwixa elizayo, sibe sele kota ku 'tivonela "iingenelo. Oku zokugonya ezitsha nxamnye izifo eziyingozi kakhulu, kunye neentlobo zezityalo olinywayo andimvumeli kwimbalela, ingqele, izifo, izitshabalalisi izenzo. Izazinzulu abaninzi bakholelwa ukuba ukusebenzisa impumelelo yale inzululwazi, singakwazi silibale ngokusetyenziswa zinambuzane eziyingozi kunye imichiza. Nangona kunjalo, uphuhliso olu qeqesho kwenza uluntu namhlanje zovavanyo ezixubeneyo. Abantu abaninzi boyika ayikho ngaphandle sizathu ukuba iziphumo zokufunda isenokuba ukuvela ukumelana nemithi kunye nezinye iziyobisi zingabameli izifo eziyingozi ebantwini nasezilwanyaneni.

Yezinto zakutshanje eziphilayo namayeza

Science iyaqhubeka nokuguquguquka. Ukanti a lot of iimfihlelo elindele eenzululwazi zethu kwixa elizayo. Esikolweni namhlanje wafunda yimbali emfutshane kuphuhliso eziphilayo. Isifundo sokuqala kwisifundo esinazo kwibanga-6. Makhe sibone oko baya kufunda abantwana bethu kwixa elizayo. Nalu uluhlu obafunyanwa ukuba zikwazile ukwenza kwinkulungwane entsha.

1. Iprojekthi "Our Human". Umsebenzi kuwo lwaqhutywa ngo-1990. Ngeli xesha, i-Congress US imali eninzi imali sele yabelwe uphando. 2 izakhi zokuhlola ziye ziqala kunyaka 1999. Ngowe-2001 yena wenza i "uyilo" yokuqala zofuzo zabantu. Ngowe-2006, umsebenzi wagqitywa.
2. Nanomedicine - unyango kunye microdevices ezikhethekileyo.
3. Iindlela "ikhula" amalungu oluntu (isibindi izihlunu, iinwele, kwemithambo yenhliziyo, iiseli kwezihlunu, njalo njalo).
4. Ukudalwa amalungu oluntu ngumntu, ogama iimpawu lingayivelisi ukuya zendalo (izihlunu zokwenziwa kwaye njalo njalo).

A ixesha xa ngokweenkcukacha olufundwa ngembali eziphilayo - grade 10. Kweli nqanaba, abafundi bafumana ulwazi ngamachiza, cytology, lokwanda eziphilayo. Le nkcukacha kuba luncedo kubafundi kwixesha elizayo.

Siye kwakhona la mathuba ekukhuleni eziphilayo njengoko isayensi eyahlukileyo, kodwa waveza ulwalathiso yayo engundoqo.