Ubume kunye namandla angaphakathi esinyithi

Imveliso yensimbi yakha isiseko esisiseko senkxaso yeziseko zobunjineli, isebenza njengezinto ezibonakalayo zoshishino lokwakha umatshini kunye nokwakhiwa. Kwimiba nganye, ukusetyenziswa kwezi zinto kudibaniswa noxanduva oluphezulu. Ukufakela kunye nezakhiwo zonxibelelwano zichaphazelekayo kunye nemithwalo yemichiza kunye nemishini, efuna ukuba uhlalutyo oluphambili lwepropati zezinto eziphathekayo. Ukuqonda imilinganiselo yokusebenza, ingqiqo isetyenziswe, njenge-energy yensimbi, ebonisa ukuziphatha kwento ethile okanye isakhiwo phantsi kweemeko zokusebenza ezahlukeneyo.

Amandla akhululekile

Zininzi iinkqubo kwisakhiwo seemveliso zetsimbi zichongiwe yimpawu zombane wamahhala. Ubukho kwizinto eziphathekayo kunye nezo zinto zikhokelela ekudlulisweni kwabo kwezinye iindaba. Ngokomzekelo, kwindlela yokusebenzisana nezisombululo eziqulethe ion efana, izakhi zetsimbi zingena kumxube wokudibanisa. Kodwa oku kwenzekayo kwiimeko apho amandla okhululekileyo ensimbi ayedlula abo basisombululo. Ngenxa yoko, insimu yamandla kagesi yesibini yombane inokubunjwa ngenxa yee-electron ezikhululekile ezisezantsi kweso sinyithi. Ukomeleza le ntsimi kusebenza njengomqobo kumbindi weeon ezintsha - ngaloo ndlela kudala umda wesigaba ovimbela ukutshintshwa kwezinto. Inkqubo yokufuduka kwaloo nto iyaqhubeka kuze kube yilapho umda wokunciphisa umda ufikeleleka kwintsimi esandulweyo. Umda wokuphakanyiswa komda wenziwa ngumlinganiselo wokungafani kwimeko yesisombululo kunye nentsimbi.

Amandla angaphezulu

Xa ama-molecule amasha afika kwi-metal surface, iindawo zokukhululeka ziphuhliswa. Ngexesha lokufuduka, iimlekyuli zihlala kummandla we-microcracks kunye nemida yokuhlukaniswa kweencinci ezincinci - ezi zigaba ze- crystal lattice. Ngaphantsi kweso sikimu, utshintsho lwamandla omhlaba ongenanto, oluye lwahla. Kwimizimba eqinile, kunakho ukugcina iinkqubo zokuququzelela ukuhamba kweplastiki kwimimandla yomhlaba. Ngako oko, amandla ophezulu ensimbi anqunywe yimikhosi yokukhanga kwama-molecule. Nantsi kubalulekile ukuphawula ubukhulu bombane, okuxhomekeka kwiimeko eziliqela. Ingakumbi, ichongwa yiJometri yee-molecule, imikhosi yabo kunye nenani lee-atom kwisakhiwo. Indawo ekhoyo yee-molecule kwi-layer layout ibalulekile.

Ubungakanani bomhlaba

Ngokuqhelekileyo, iinkqubo zokuxhatshazwa zivela kwimidiya engafaniyo eyahlukileyo kwi-interface yezigaba ezingabonakaliyo. Kodwa ku funeka kuqatshelwe ukuba kunye nokuxhatshazwa, ezinye iipropati zomhlaba zibonakaliswe ngenxa yeeparitha zokusebenzisana kwazo nezinye iisistim. Ukudibanisa kwezi zakhiwo kuqikelela ubuninzi beeteknoloji zobuchwepheshe zetsimbi. Ngaloo ndlela, amandla esitye, ukusuka kumbono wokubambisana komhlaba, anganquma iiparitha ze-coalescence yamaconsi kwi-alloys. I-Technologists, ngoko, ibonakalisa iimpawu zeekrakra kunye ne-fluxes, kwakunye nokusebenzisana kwabo kunye nesiseko se-metallic. Ukongezelela, izakhiwo zomhlaba zichaphazela isantya seenkqubo ze-thermotechnology, phakathi kwazo ukuveliswa kweegesi kunye nokunyuka kwesinyithi.

Ukucandwa kwamandla kunye neepropati zetsimbi

Kuye kwaphawulwa ukuba ukucwangciswa kokusabalalisa iamolekyu kunye nesakhiwo sendawo yesinyithi kunokumisela impawu nganye yezinto eziphathekayo. Ngokukodwa, ukubonakaliswa okukodwa kweensimbi ezininzi, kunye nokusebenza kwazo, kunqunywe ukuhanjiswa kwamanqanaba emandla. Ukuqokelela amandla kumanqanaba akhululekileyo kunye namaqela ancedisa ukwabiwa kwanoma yiyiphi i-quantum ngamanqanaba amabini wamandla. Omnye wabo uya kuba kwibhande le-valence, kunye nelinye kwiindawo zokuqhuba. Akunakutsholwa ukuba ukunikezwa kwamandla kwee-elektrononi kwisinyithi kumile kwaye akuchazi nayiphi na utshintsho. Iimpawu zebhanti ye-valence, umzekelo, unokufumana i-quanta yokukhanya, ukufudukela kwibhendi yokuqhuba. Ngenxa yoko, ukukhanya kubanjwe, kungabonakali. Ngenxa yoko, isinyithi sinesakhiwo se-opaque. Ngokubhekiselele ekukhanyeni, kubangelwa yinkqubo yokukhanya kokukhanya xa ibuyisela iifowuni iqhutywe yimisebe ibe ngamanqanaba emandla aphantsi.

Amandla angaphakathi

Oku kunokwenzeka kubunjwe amandla e-ion, kunye nokuhamba kwe-thermal yee-elektroni zokuqhuba. Ngokungaqondile, eli xabiso libhekiselele kwiintlawulo zangaphakathi zezakhiwo zetsimbi. Ngokukodwa, kwintsimbi edibeneyo ne-electrolytes, isakhono sayo sisetyenziswe ngokuzenzekelayo. Zininzi iinkqubo ezingalunganga zidibene neenguqu kumandla angaphakathi . Ngokomzekelo, kule khonkco, kunokwenzeka ukuba kuqinisekiswe ukubola kunye neengxaki ze-deformation. Kwiimeko ezinjalo, amandla angaphakathi esityebangela ukuba kukho ubukhulu becala kunye neziphene ezinkulu kwisakhiwo. Ngaphezu koko, ukutshatyalaliswa okukodwa kwamandla anikeziweyo phantsi kwe-action corrosion efanayo kuqinisekisa ukulahleka kwecandelo elithile lezinto ezinokwenzeka. Kwindlela yokusebenza kweemveliso zetsimbi, izinto ezintle zokutshintshwa kwamandla angaphakathi zingabonakaliswa ngokutshatyalaliswa kwezakhiwo kunye nokunciphisa iplastiki.

Amandla e-electron kwintsimbi

Xa kuchazwa ubuninzi beengqungquthela ezidibanisana nomnye nomnye kwiimpawu eziqinileyo, ezinomlinganiselo wendlela yamandla e-electron. Ngokuqhelekileyo, ixabiso elichanekileyo lisetyenziselwa ukuchonga uhlobo lwaba bantu phezu kwamanqanaba emandla. Ngokuhambelana nemimiselo yombono we-quantum, ukulinganisa kwamandla e-electron kwenziwa kwi-electron-volts. Kukholelwa ukuba kwisinyithi i-electron potentially two orders of magnitude higher than the energy, which is calculated from theory kinetic of gases kwiqondo lokushisa. Kule meko, amandla amathethoni avela kwisinyithi kwaye, ngokukodwa, ukunyuka kwezinto akuxhomekeke kwiqondo lokushisa.

Amandla e-ion kwintsimbi

Ukubalwa kwamandla e-ions kwenza ukuba kube lula ukujonga iimpawu zetsimbi kwiinkqubo zokutyhafaza, ukucwiliswa kwemida, ukuchithwa kwezinto, njl. Ngokukodwa, i-teknoloji zichonga amandla okuqina kunye nokunyaniseka. Ukuze senze oku, sizisa ingcamango yecristal lattice, apho ion ikhona khona. Ion energy power potentially kubalwa kuthathelwa ingqalelo yayo ingozi echaphazelekayo kwi-crystalline ngento yokwakhiwa kweengqungquthela ezidibeneyo. Iimeko ze-ion zinokuchaphazeleka ngamandla okhenkethi wee- elektroni zikhongwe kwizinyithi ngexesha lokudibana. Ekubeni phantsi kweemeko zokwandisa ukuhluka kwezinto ezikhoyo phakathi kwee-electrodes ukuya kumawaka e-volts, ukunyuka kwesantya se-particle kwandisa kakhulu, inokuthi iqokelele inokwanela ukwahlukana kwama-molecule e-counter.

Amandla oonxibelelwano

Iimpawu zibonakaliswa ngeentlobo ezixubekileyo zokuxhunywa. Izibophelelo ze-Covalent kunye ne-ionic azikho ulwahlulo olubukhali kwaye zihlala zilala. Ngaloo ndlela, inkqubo yokuqina kwesinyithi phantsi kwezenzo zokutshatyalaliswa kweentambo kunye nephulophu yeplastiki ichazwe nje ngokuhamba kwekhonkco yentsimbi ibe yintsebenziswano edibeneyo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuba luhlobo luni, ezi zichazwe njengeenkqubo zeekhemikhali. Ngelo xesha, unxibelelwano ngalunye lunamandla. Ngokomzekelo, i-ionic, i-electrostatic kunye ne-interval covalent ingabonelela nge-400 kJ. Amandla athile aya kuxhomekeka kumandla wensimbi xa edibanisa neendaba ezihlukeneyo kunye nemithwalo engummiselo. Izibophelelo zetsimbi zingabonakaliswa ngamanqaku amandla ahlukeneyo, kodwa nakuphi na ukubonakaliswa abayiyi kufaniswa nepropati ezifanayo kwi-media covalent kunye ne-ionic.

Iipropati zeekhonkco zetsimbi

Enye yeempawu eziphambili ezibonakalisa amandla okubophayo ukuzaliswa. Le propati inquma isimo seamolekyu kwaye, ngokukodwa, isakhiwo kunye nokubunjwa kwazo. Ngensimbi, iinqununu zikhona kwifomu edibeneyo. Ngaphambili, imfundiso yeentsimbi ze-valence yayisetyenziselwa ukuqonda iipropati zokusebenza zezixhobo eziyinkimbinkimbi , kodwa kwiminyaka yamuva ilahlekelwe yinto ebalulekileyo. Ngawo onke amancedo, le ngcamango ayichazi inani lezinto ezibalulekileyo. Phakathi kwabo, sinokuzibona i-spectra ye-absorption kwiimpawu, iimpawu zamagnetic kunye nezinye iimpawu. Kodwa xa ubala amandla omhlaba kwisinyithi, umntu unokukwazi ukuchonga loo propati njengokutsha. Inquma amandla okwakhiwa kwezinyithi ukutshabalalisa ngaphandle kokucima i-activators.

Isimo sesinyithi

Uninzi lwezinyithi lubonakaliswe ngokucwangcisa i-valence kunye nesakhiwo sekhompyutheni. Ngokuxhomekeke kwiipropati zesi sakhiwo, isimo sengaphakathi sangaphakathi sichazwe. Ngokusekelwe kwezi zikhombisi kunye nokuqwalasela ubudlelwane, kunokwenzeka ukufumana izigqibo malunga nexabiso lezinga lokutyungquthela insimbi ethile. Ngokomzekelo, isinyithi esithambileyo, kuquka igolide kunye nobhedu, kunomlinganiselo ophantsi. Oku kuchazwa ngokuncipha kwinani lama-electron angasebenziyo kwii-atom. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, isinyithi esithambileyo sinobugcisa obuphezulu obuphezulu, oko kuthi, ngenxa yoko, ngenxa yokuhamba ngokuphezulu kwama-elektrononi. Ngendlela, amandla okuqokelela isinyithi phantsi kweemeko zokuqhuba kakuhle kweeon, inikeza ukuqhuba okuphezulu kombane ngenxa yee-elektroni. Lo ngowomnye wempawu ezibalulekileyo zentsebenzo, ezimiselwa ngumbuso wensimbi.

Isiphelo

Iipropati zeekhemikhali zesebe zibeka ngokucacileyo iimpawu zabo zobugcisa nezemvelo. Oku kuvumela oogqirha ukuba bagxilise ekusebenzeni kwamandla kwezixhobo, ngokubhekiselele kwimeko yokusetyenziswa kwayo phantsi kweemeko ezithile. Ukongezelela, amandla esitye asinakuhlala esithathwa njengezimeleyo. Oko kukuthi, amandla ayo anokuhluka ngokuxhomekeke kwimeko yokusebenzisana namanye amaphephandaba. Ulwalamano olucacileyo kakhulu lwezakhiwo zensimbi kunye nezinye izinto ziyimodeli yeenkqubo zokufuduka, xa kuzaliswa amanqanaba omandla akhululekile.