Okuqinileyo: iimpawu, isakhiwo, ukuxinana nemizekelo

umnxeba Solid ezinjalo izinto ezo ezinako zokubumba umzimba kwaye umthamo. Of ulwelo kunye neegesi, ukuba zizakubalulwa imilo zabo. Le eziqinileyo lebele imilo umzimba ngenxa yokuba amasuntswana zabo abakwazi ukuhamba ngokukhululekileyo. Ahluke ezixineneyo, ductility, conductivity zabo zombane kunye nombala. Kananjalo nezinye iipropati. Ngokomzekelo, inkoliso yezi zinto sele zanyibilika ngexesha ubushushu, ukufumana urhulumente ulwelo lamntu. Ezinye zazo xa afudunyezwe nangoko gasified (sublimed). Kodwa kukho abo abakreqayo kwezinye izinto phantsi.

Types of eziqinileyo

Zonke izinto eziqinileyo bohlulwa babe ngamaqela amabini.

1. Amorphous, apho zicwangciswe amasuntswana ngamnye zazivelela. Ngamanye amazwi, ukuba awunayo indlela ecacileyo (ezithile) isakhiwo. Ezi eziqinileyo nga ukunyibilikiswa ezithile lokuphumla lobushushu emiselweyo. Yeyona ixhaphakileyo kwezi ziquka zeglasi kunye nentlaka.
2. Crystal, nto leyo ke nohlulwe iintlobo-4: atomic, eziphilayo, ionic, zalo. Amasuntswana zifumaneka kuphela ngokomfuziselo ethile, elileli, yikristale ngekroba. geometry kwayo nezinto ezahlukeneyo ziyahluka kakhulu.

eziqinileyo crystalline busa amorphous ngobuninzi babo.

Types of eziqinileyo crystalline

In phantse zonke izinto eziqinileyo isakhiwo crystalline. Ahluke kubume. Xa crystalline yayo iindawo emkhusaneni ziqulathe amasuntswana ezahlukeneyo kunye neekhemikhali. Oku kuhambelana nawo, yaye amagama abo. uhlobo ngalinye iipropati ezithile ngenxa yalo;

• Le crystal emkhusaneni amasuntswana atomic esiqinileyo ezinxulumene ngokuzikhanyeza covalent. It lunomahluko ngamandla alo. Ngenxa oku, izinto ezinjalo kufuneka eliphezulu indawo yokunyibilika nokubilisa. Olu hlobo luquka zwi nedayimani.
• Xa crystal emkhusaneni ye iqhina beemolekyuli phakathi kweengqakumbana luphawulwa yokuswela amandla. Substances elolu hlobo luphawulwa lula yokunyibilika nokubilisa. Bona luphawulwa hexa, ngenxa apho abe livumba ethile. Ezi eziqinileyo aba ngumkhenkce, iswekile. Isindululo sokuphela molecule e eziqinileyo lolu hlobo luphawulwa umsebenzi wabo.
• I ionic crystal efestileni kwiindawo alternate amasuntswana ezichaphazelekayo wamwisela ezakhayo embi. Bona olugcinwe akutsalwa electrostatic. Olu hlobo efestileni ukho alkalis, iityuwa, oxides esisiseko. Zininzi izinto yale hlobo zikhawuleze enyibilikayo emanzini. Ngenxa esinda isibopho phakathi ion ezi eliyinjubaqa. Phantse bonke bephela, esha ekubeni luphawulwa non-hexa. Izinto kunye emkhusaneni ionic akakwazi ukuqhuba umbane, njengoko kumafa wabo akukho electron simahla. Umzekelo ophilayo ion isiqina - ityuwa. Loo crystal emkhusaneni ulunika krobo. Oku kungenxa yokuba nayiphi na shift wayo kunokubangela ion imikhosi sisenzo.
• Zalo crystal emkhusaneni kuphela iikhemikhali ion zikhona iindawo, ngokuqinisekileyo ityala. Phakathi kwazo kukho electron ngabakhululekileyo bekuza amandla kakhulu thermal kunye zombane. Yiyo loo nto naziphi na iintsimbi phawu ezahlukeneyo ezifana conductivity.

imiba jikelele okuqinileyo

Okuqinileyo zingangeni - loo nto ifana nento enye. La magama ekubhekiselelwe enye ithi 4 udibaniso. Okuqinileyo ube ifomu ezinzileyo kunye nesimilo isindululo thermal-athom. Le yokugqibela yenza oscillations ezincinane kufuphi kwizikhundla kuvuselele. Yesebe zesayensi ajongene nasekufundweni ubume kunye nesakhiwo yangaphakathi, obizwa ngokuba physics eqinileyo-karhulumente. Kukho nezinye iinkalo ezibalulekileyo ulwazi ababandakanyekayo izinto ezinjalo. Ukutshintsha imilo kwempembelelo zangaphandle kunye eshukumayo ebizwa ubuchwephetshe bokuba imizimba deformable.

Ngenxa iimpawu ezahlukeneyo eziqinileyo, baye ezisetyenziswa izixhobo zobugcisa ezahlukeneyo zadalwa ngumntu. Kaninzi ngenxa ukusetyenziswa zabo iimpawu ezifana lukhuni, umthamo, ubunzima, luthambe, plasticity, brittleness. inzululwazi Modern zingasetyenziswa kunye nezinye iimpawu eziqinileyo leyo kungabonwa kuphela elabhoratri.

Yintoni crystal

Ziikristale - umzimba esiluqilima abekwe amasuntswana ethile umyalelo. Nganye chemical na isakhiwo yayo. athom zayo benza ingqokelela ezintathu-dimensionally ngamaxesha ebizwa ngekroba. izinto eziqinileyo isakhiwo macala eyahlukileyo. karhulumente crystalline Solid kugqalwa kuzinza ngoko, kuba uye isixa ubuncinane yamandla.

Uninzi eqinile (zendalo) iquka inani elikhulu iinkozo ngamnye randomly ojolise (crystallites). izinto ezinjalo kuthiwa polycrystalline. Ezi ziquka aluminiyamu zobugcisa kunye nesinyithi, kwakunye eninzi lamatye. Monocrystalline wabiza ziikristale single zendalo okanye zokwenziwa.

Kuninzi imizimba eqinileyo efana akhiwa kurhulumente kwesigaba elulwelo, mazingeniswe ukunyibilika okanye isisombululo. Ngamanye amaxesha, yokuba zivela kwimeko sukube. Le nkqubo ibizwa ngokuba crystallization. Ngenxa inkqubela inkqubo kulinywa (kuyondelelaniswe) kwezinto ezahlukeneyo zenzululwazi nobugcisa ikhuphe isikali mveliso. Uninzi ziikristale ngokumila yendalo emacala rhoqo. nobukhulu zabo ziyahluka ngokubanzi. Umzekelo, zwi zendalo (amatye crystal) ongakanani ukuya kumakhulu eekhilogram, kunye iidayimani - ukuya grams eziliqela.

Xa eziqinileyo amorphous, i-atom zibe oscillation rhoqo malunga amanqaku akhiwe zazivelela. Bathi sigcine ezinye umyalelo elifutshane-uluhlu, kodwa akukho onokulufikelela emva kwexesha elide. Oku kungenxa yokuba iimolekyuli zabo zilungiselelwe kumgama ukuba onokuthelekiswa kunye nobukhulu bazo. Avamise kakhulu kumzekelo wethu kubomi oku yimeko eqinileyo yiglasi. izinto Amorphous badla kuthathwa kulwelo kunye viscosity ngamabona enkulu. Ixesha crystallization amaxesha enkulu kangangokuba ayiboniswanga.

Ukuba iimpawu zingentla ezi zinto uzenze ezizodwa. eziqinileyo Amorphous zithathwa iyahlozinga kuba njani ngokuhamba kwexesha ukuya kungena crystalline karhulumente.

Molekyuli atom, leyo iquka into eqinileyo swi ezixineneyo. Bona ngokoqobo bagcine indawo yabo xa kuthelekiswa malunga namanye amasuntswana kwaye zibanjwa kunye ngokunxibelelana aphakathi. Umgama phakathi molecule okuqinileyo kumacala ahlukeneyo kuthiwa akhazimlayo emkhusaneni i parameter. Ubume lwesiyobisi isimetri yayo ukuchaza ezininzi iipropati ezifana electron band, cleavage kunye yokukhanya. Xa baboniswa imikhosi eqinileyo elikhulu ngokwaneleyo, ezi mpawu isenokuba ngaphezulu okanye ngaphantsi badlwengulwe. Xa oku iSADC deformation eqinileyo ntsalela.

I-atom zemizimba eziqinileyo oscillate, apho kungenxa ilifa lwamandla thermal. Ekubeni okungenamsebenzi, ukuba ibonakala kuphela phantsi kweemeko elebhu. Isakhiwo molecule ye eziqinileyo kakhulu kuchaphazela iipropati yayo.

Isifundo eziqinileyo

Iimpawu iimpawu zezi zinto, umgangatho kunye yamasuntswana yazo eshukumayo wafunda amacandelwana ezahlukeneyo ophanda karhulumente eqinileyo.

Kuba isifundo kusetyenziswa: radio spectroscopy, uhlalutyo noshowo usebenzisa-X-reyi kunye nezinye iindlela. Ngoko ukufunda iimpawu mechanical, ngokwasemzimbeni kunye thermal of eziqinileyo. Yobulukhuni, ukumelana noxinezeleko, uqine, inguqu kwisigaba study Materials. It kakhulu esilala kunye nokwakheka eziqinileyo. Kukho nenye nenzululwazi ebalulekileyo yale mihla. Ukuze ukufunda ezikhoyo synthesizing izinto ezintsha zabanjwa chemistry zikarhulumente esiqinileyo.

iimpawu eziqinileyo

Character motion electron atom lwangaphandle esiqinileyo imisela ezininzi iimpawu zawo, umzekelo, kagesi. Kukho iiklasi 5 imizimba enjalo. Bona ukubeka kuxhomekeke kuhlobo atom:

• Ionic, uphawu esisiseko apho ungamandla yomtsalane electrostatic. iimpawu zayo: vangama kunye nokufunxwa zokukhanya kummandla infrared. Xa kubushushu obuphantsi, umanyano ionic luphawulwa Unikezelo lombane ephantsi. Umzekelo izinto olunjalo ityuwa sodium of zehydrochloric acid (NaCl).
• Covalent wenziwe ngokuncama kukho isibini electron, lalo zombini atom. Loo ikhonkco wohlulwe: single (single), kabini kunye kathathu. La magama abonisa ubukho ngababini electron (1, 2, 3). iibhondi kabini kathathu kuthiwa iziphindwa. Kukho nenye kwisahlulo qela. Ngoko ke, kuxhomekeke kunikezo electron lexinene bond polar kunye nonpolar ekwanti. Eyokuqala ukhandwa atom ezahlukeneyo, kwaye eyesibini - ngokulinganayo. Loo isimo esiluqilima mba, imizekelo ayindalo - nekalikedo (C) kunye lesilicon (Si), esibonakala mninzi yayo. Uninzi ziikristale engqindilili nje ibhondi covalent.
• Metal akhiwa ngokuhlanganisa electron Valence-athom. Ngenxa yoko, kukho electron ilifu iyonke asuswa phantsi kwempembelelo ombane yombane. Metal iqhina kwakheka xa athom nimanyane elide. Ukuba bakwazi ukunikela electron. izinyithi abaninzi, iikhompawundi nentsonkothileyo kulo mabophe luqokelelane imeko esiluqilima mba. Imizekelo: isodiyam barium,-aluminiyam, ikopolo, igolide. iikhompawundi Non-eqaqambileyo bubuhle zezi zilandelayo: AlCr _2, Ca ₂ Cu, Cu ₅ Zn _8. Izinto kunye nisondelelane yentsimbi (iintsimbi) zahlukahlukene zokuhlola emzimbeni. Bangafika ulwelo (HG), ithambile (Na, K), nzima kakhulu (W, yesiqephu).
• Ezinto evela ziikristale akhiwa molekyuli ezahlukeneyo zenkqunto. Lubonakala yi izikhewu phakathi iimolekyuli ngeqanda electron mninzi. Force atom enxulumanisa kwezi ziikristale izinto ezinkulu. Xa molekyuli linye ninomdla kwezinye umtsalane ngamnye aphakathi ababuthathaka kuphela. Kungenxa yoko le nto unxibelelwano phakathi kwabo lula kutshatyalaliswa bubushushu. Unxulumano phakathi athom ukuyisonga nzima kakhulu ngakumbi. bond Ezinto yahlulwe orientation, usasazeko kunye induction. Umzekelo into eqinileyo enjalo methane.
• Hydrogen, olwenzeka phakathi athom elihle ngamaza okanye molekyuli zalo embi namaza isuntswana incinane zinemoletyhule okanye kwezinye iindawo. Ezi ubudlelwane ekunokuthiwa ngumkhenkce.

Properties eziqinileyo

Yintoni esiyaziyo namhlanje? Izazinzulu ziye kudala bafunda iimpawu kwezinto zikarhulumente eqinileyo. Xa ekucaca ukuba amaqondo obushushu kunye ukuyitshintsha. Ukutshintsha incindi yomzimba kuthiwa zavuleka. Ukuguqulwa eqinileyo karhulumente sukube kuthiwa sublimation. Xa inani lobushushu kwenzeka crystallization Solid. Ezinye izinto phantsi kwempembelelo kubanda kudluliselwa kwisigaba amorphous. Le nkqubo ibizwa ngokuba izazinzulu vitrification.

Xa kohlelo Kwinqanaba utshintsho kubume yangaphakathi eziqinileyo. I-odola iphezulu kuyo ofumana ubushushu uvikivwa. Xa womoya kunye lobushushu T> 0 K nayiphi na into ekhoyo kwindalo, ukuqinisa. helium kuphela, lo crystallization apho kuyimfuneko uxinzelelo 24 ATM, i Kwimeko ongasetyenziswayo kuyo lo mgaqo.

karhulumente Solid ulunika iipropati eyahlukileyo emzimbeni. Bachaza indlela ethile lwemizimba phantsi kwempembelelo kwiinkalo ezithile kunye nemikhosi. Le propati bohlulwa babe ngamaqela. 3 Nika indlela exposure esilingana iintlobo ezintathu eneji (ngomatshini, thermal, kagesi). Ngako ke khona amaqela amathathu iimpawu ebonakalayo eziqinileyo:

• iipropati Mechanical ezinxulumene noxinzelelo kwaye deformation lwemizimba. Ngokutsho kwezi nqobo, le eziqinileyo zahlulwe ilastiki, rheological, amandla kunye nobuchwepheshe. Wonke amanye umzimba igcina ukwakheka kwalo, kodwa zingatshintshwa amandla wangaphandle. Kule meko, lungathi lube deformation zeplastiki (imbono ekuqaleni ababuyelanga), elastic (ubuyela imilo original) okanye etshabalalisayo (xa kukho isinyuko ethile ibola / ikhefu). Hlola le mizamo ichaza moduli elastic. Solid umelana kuphela ucinezelo, ukuzolula, kodwa ngokutshintsha, izibhija kunye ayeguqa. ngqongqo amandla umzimba ukuze sixhathise ubizo impahla yakhe kutshatyalaliswa.
• Thermal wabonakalaliswa phantsi kwempembelelo yamasimi thermal. Enye mihlaba ibalulekileyo - indawo yokunyibilika, apho umzimba yokuguqulela kwimo engamanzi. Oku iqatshelwe eziqinileyo crystalline. imizimba Amorphous ilifa ubushushu abagxothwa fusion, njengoko lenguqu yabo kurhulumente ulwelo xa amaqondo obushushu uvuka ngokuthe ngcembe. Emva kokuba umzimba amorphous ezithile ubushushu ithe luthambe lube plasticity. Le meko kuthetha impumelelo lobushushu yabo ngeglasi yenguqu. Xa ukufudumeza kwenzeka deformation umzimba ngqwabalala. Ngaphezu koko, oko kudla izikhali. Nangokobungakanani, le meko iphawulwa into ethile. lobushushu emzimbeni kuchaphazela iimpawu mechanical ezifana flowability, plasticity, ukuqina kunye namandla.
• Kagesi ezinxulumene sesichengeni microparticles nokuphuma eqinileyo kunye amaza of ngqongqo kakhulu. Ezi ziquka probation kunye neempawu radiative.

isakhiwo band

Le eziqinileyo ziye zahlelwa kwaye babizwa ngokuba isakhiwo band. Ngoko ke, phakathi kwabo ahluka:

• Abaqhubi, ungachazwa ukuba conductivity kunye Valence bands ayangenana. Ngaloo electron Ungasa phakathi kwabo, unika amandla lincinci. Kuba ababhexeshi zonke iintsimbi. Xa umsinga wombane owawubumbela loo umzimba umahluko amandla (ngenxa nokuhamba kakuhle elektroni phakathi ngokwamanqaku kwanala nobonisa).
• Dielectrics, apho iindawo musa ayangenana. Isithuba phakathi kwabo mkhulu kuno-4 eV. Ukuqhuba elektroni ukusuka Valence lokufuna enkulu Uhanjiso amandla band. Ngenxa ezi propati dielectrics phantse non-conductive.
• Semiconductors, luphawulwa kungekho Uhanjiso kunye Valence bands. Isithuba phakathi kwabo mncinci kuno-4 eV. Kuba ukudluliselwa elektroni ukusuka Valence ukuya Uhanjiso band kufuna amandla ngaphantsi kwe dielectrics. semiconductors Pure (unalloyed kunye eigenfunctions) kakuhle ngoku kudluliselwa.

sindululo bemolekyuli eziqinileyo kubangela iipropati zabo kagesi.

nezinye izakhiwo

Izinto eziqinileyo zahlulwe kunye neempawu zazo ngemagnethi. Kukho amaqela amathathu zezi:

• Iipropati Diamagnetic leyo zixhomekeke omncinane ubushushu okanye imo udibaniso.
• Paramagnetic, evela orientation electron Uhanjiso kunye zihlandlo kazibuthe ye atom. Ngokutsho Curie susceptibility kwabo kuyancipha nje lobushushu. Ngoko ke, ngo-300 K oko 10 ^-5.
• Umzimba Imagnethi kunye nesakhiwo wayalela ukuba elide-uluhlu ukuze-athom. Xa iindawo ezithile emkhusaneni ngaba ngamathuba athile amalungiselelo amasuntswana eyekele- ngemagnethi. Ezi eziqinileyo zingangeni isasetyenziswa kakhulu kwiinkalo ezahlukeneyo zezinto ezenziwa luluntu.

Le into enzima endalweni

Ntoni na ke? eziqinileyo konga kakhulu ukugqiba yokuqaqadeka. Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, oosonzululwazi baye bafumanisa izinto eziliqela ezithi ukuba 'umzimba eside kakhulu. " Kakhulu isiqina - it fullerite (crystal iimolekyuli kunye fullerene), apho malunga amaxesha 1.5 nzima ngaphezu diamond. Ngelishwa, akukho okwangoku ifumaneka kuphela ibe ncinci kakhulu.

Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, le nto inzima, nto leyo kamva ukuze isetyenziswe kolu shishino - lonsdalite (ezinamacala diamond). Nguye 58% nzima ngaphezu diamond. Lonsdalite - ukuguqulwa allotropic le carbon. crystal wayo Ilibele ifana kakhulu nekalikedo. yeseli Lonsdaleite iqulethe atom-4, kodwa nedayimani - 8. le ziikristale ezisetyenziswa ngokuqhelekileyo namhlanje diamond inzima.