Yintoni carbohydrate indima carbohydrate emzimbeni womntu

iimpawu eekhemikhali iiseli ukwenza i eziphilayo zixhomekeke kakhulu kwinani athom carbon okumisele ukuya kwi-50% ngokobunzima owomileyo. athom Carbon zezona izinto eziphambili eziphilayo: iiproteni, nucleic, lipids kunye carbohydrate. Iqela yokugqibela kuquka carbonyl ezimbaxa namanzi ehambelana wokubala (CH ₂ O) _n, apho n ilingana no okanye inkulu kuna ezintathu. Ngaphandle carbon, hydrogen kunye oxygenation, kwi molecule inokuquka phosphorus, initrogen, nesalfure. Kweli nqaku, siphonononga indima carbohydrate emzimbeni womntu, kwakunye neempawu yesakhiwo, iimpawu kunye nemisebenzi.

ngezigaba

Eli qela iikhompawundi ngamachiza zahlulwe kwizintlu ezintathu: iswekile ezilula (monosaccharides), iikhompawundi polymeric kunye uqhagamshelaniso glycosidic - oligosaccharides kunye biopolymers ubunzima eliphezulu eziphilayo - polysaccharides. Iiklasi zikhankanywe apha ngasentla into efumaneka kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo cell. Umzekelo, kukho glucose istatshi nezakhiwo yezityalo, glycogen - in hepatocytes yabantu, neendonga iseli ye nomngundo, le ngechitin - kwi arthropods amathambo engaphandle. Zonke ezi zinto zingasentla - are namandla. Indima carbohydrate umzimba jikelele. Bona - umthengisi engundoqo lwamandla kwiinkqubo ezibalulekileyo zezityalo iiseli, iintsholongwane, izilwanyana kunye nabantu.

monosaccharides

Yiba jikelele formula C _n H _{2 n} O _n kwaye bohlulwa babe ngamaqela kuxhomekeka kwinani athom kwekhabhoni molecule: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, njalo-njalo. Njengenxalenye yale organelles iseli kwaye kukho icytoplasm of iswekile ezilula kufuneka sisimo ezimbini lwendawo: yomgama kunye setyhula. Kwimeko yokuqala, i-atom carbon oxhulumene kwi omnye komnye nge iibhondi covalent sigma kunye nefom ivaliwe ephambuka, kwimeko yesibini amathambo carbon ayikho ivaliwe yaye kusenokwenzeka ukuba eyayizalwa. Ukuze ubone ukuba yintoni na indima carbohydrate emzimbeni, cinga yeyona ixhaphakileyo them - pentose kunye hexose.

Isomers: glucose fructose

Baye indlela efanayo molecule C ₆ H ₁₂ Owu _6, kodwa iintlobo ezahlukeneyo iimolekyuli zezakhiwo. ngaphambili Siye ngokuba indima ephambili carbohydrate eziphilayo - amandla. Ezi zinto zingasentla idilikile yi kwiseli. Isiphumo uyekelelo amandla (17.6 kJ ka yegram enye glucose). Ngaphezu koko, 36 molecule ATP iya kuhlanganiswa. siqala glucose lwenzeka kwi inwebu (cristae) mitochondria kwaye imele umxokelelwane reactions enzymatic - umjikelo Krebs. Yena yinxenye ebalulekileyo dissimilation aqukuqela zonke iiseli eziphilayo heterotrophic eukaryotic.

Iswekile kwakhona bakha myocytes e ezanyisayo ngenxa lwahlukane kwi glycogen kwezihlunu. Kwixesha elizayo, oku kusetyenziswa ichiza ngokulula lunokuboliswa nokubonelela iiseli amandla - oku indima ephambili carbohydrate emzimbeni. Izityalo phototrophs kunye ngokuzimeleyo zibe iswekile ngexesha photosynthesis. Ezi zinto kuthiwa kumjikelo Calvin. Le izinto lokuqala ikhosi libe ngu-carbon dioxide kunye acceptor - ribolozodifosfat. Yolungelelwaniso glucose lwenzeka kwi matrix chloroplast. Fructose, ukuba indlela efanayo beemolekyuli njengoko glucose, iqulathe kwi molecule iqela esebenzayo ketones. Yena ke enencasa ngaphezu glucose, kwaye ubusi kunye nancindi berry kunye neziqhamo. Ngoko ke, indima bemvelo wekhabohayidreyiti emzimbeni ilele kakhulu ukusetyenziswa kwayo njengomthombo ekhawulezileyo wamandla.

Indima yofuzo kwi pentose

Makhe sihlolisise elinye iqela monosaccharides - ribose kunye deoxyribose. yokuvelela yabo ixhomekeke yokuba ukuba yinxalenye Iipholima - asidi acid. Ngokuba zonke izinto, kuquka iifomu ubomi non-zeselula, DNA kunye RNA na abathwali eziphambili ulwazi zamafa. Ribose ifakwe kwi-DNA RNA kunye nucleotides deoxyribose equlathwe DNA. Ngenxa yoko, indima bemvelo wekhabohayidreyiti emzimbeni womntu kukuba abandakanyeka ukusekwa kweeyunithi kwimfuza - izakhi kunye zofuzo.

pentose ongumzekelo equlathe iqela aldehyde kwaye abaninzi ebukumkanini lwezityalo xylose (esiqulathwe iziqu kunye iimbewu), alpha-arabinose (zigcinwa iintsini emithi yeziqhamo amatye). Ngenxa yoko, ukusasazwa kunye nendima eziphilayo wekhabohayidreyiti kumzimba izityalo eziphezulu ezinkulu ngokwaneleyo.

Yintoni oligosaccharides

Ukuba iintsalela le molecule monosaccharides, ezifana glucose okanye fructose, ezinxulumene ngeentambo covalent, le oligosaccharides kwakhiwa - carbohydrate polymeric. Indima carbohydrate emzimbeni izityalo kunye nezilwanyana ohlukahlukeneyo. Oku kuyinyaniso ngokukodwa disaccharides. Avamise kakhulu phakathi zazo sucrose, lactose, maltose kunye trehalose. Ngenxa yoko, sucrose, nelaziwa ngokuba yeziqholo okanye sugar beet, equlethwe izityalo njengesisombululo kwaye igcinwe ibe iingcambu zabo okanye iziqu. Haydrolisis kwemolekyuli wambumba glucose kunye fructose. Ubisi neswekile, lactose na koqoqobo kwesilwanyana. Kwabanye abantu, kukho ukunyamezelana kule into ezinxulumene hyposecretion transcriptase yelactose, leyo uyazifohloza phantsi galactose ubisi iswekile kunye iswekile. Indima ibubomi kumzimba carbohydrate ezahlukileyo. Hi xikombiso, le trehalose disaccharide, eyakhiwa iintsalela ezimbini glucose, inxalenye hemolymph of intlanzi, izigcawu, izinambuzane. Kwakhona kwenzeka kwiiseli nomngundo kunye ezithile lisiza.

Enye disaccharide - Maltose, okanye imithombo iswekile, uqulathwe caryopses zerhasi okanye nespelete ukuntshula zabo, kuba zinemoletyhule eziquka iintsalela ezimbini glucose. Oku akhiwa ukubola womfuno okanye isilwanyana istatshi. In emathunjini amancinci abantu kunye nezilwanyana ezanyisayo lwanamathela maltose yi enzyme - maltase. Xa ukungabikho kwayo juice pancreatic elivelayo ngezifo okubangelwa ukunyamezelana ukuya wesitatshi ukutya glycogen okanye yemifuno iimveliso. Kulo mzekelo, ukutya ekhethekileyo yaye idityaniswe ezityiwa enzyme ngokwayo.

carbohydrate Complex endalweni

La yande kakhulu, ingakumbi ehlabathini imifuno, ezi biopolymers yaye ubunzima eliphezulu eziphilayo. Hi xikombiso, le otashi oko 800 000, kwaye eli yintlama - 1 600 000. Le polysaccharides ayashiyana ekwakhiweni kwezi monomers, isidanga polymerization, kunye nobude chain. Ngokungafaniyo iswekile ezilula kunye oligosaccharides leyo zikhawuleze enyibilikayo emanzini yaye incasa elithozamisayo, polysaccharides hydrophobic nasongo. Cinga indima carbohydrate emzimbeni womntu umzekelo glycogen njengoko - starch isilwanyana. Oku kuhlelwe ukusuka glucose ligcinwe hepatocytes kunye neeseli kwezihlunu skeletal, apho umxholo walo kabini ngaphezulu esibindini. Ngu ekumisweni glycogen nazo ziyakwazi amanqatha ongama, neurocytes kunye macrophage. Enye polysaccharide - starch emifuno siyimveliso photosynthesis kwaye evela plastids of eluhlaza.

Ukususela kanye ekuqaleni lasisiseko senkcubeko yoluntu, ngabanikezeli eziphambili wesitatshi baba izityalo ezixabisekileyo: irayisi, iitapile, umbona. Bahlala isiseko ezityiwa uninzi lwabantu on Earth. Kungenxa yoko le nto carbohydrate zibaluleke kangaka. Indima carbohydrate emzimbeni, njengoko sele sibonile, xa isicelo sabo njengomba eziphilayo amandla-elambile ngokukhawuleza ukutya.

Kukho iqela polysaccharides ezo monomers iintsalela acid hyaluronic. Aba babizwa pectins kwaye izinto zokwakha kweeseli zezityalo. Ingakumbi zizityebi kubo apile Chuba, beet yintlama. izinto zeeselula pectins nokulawula uxinzelelo intracellular - turgor. Kushishino confectionery ke, ukuba zisetyenziswa arhente gelling kunye ukudumba ekuvelisweni iintlobo ezikumgangatho ophezulu marshmallow kunye ijeli. Inguwo kusetyenziswa izinto eziphilayo esebenzayo deducing kakuhle ubuthi ikholoni.

Yintoni glycolipids

Yeyona iqela umdla iikhompawundi entsonkothileyo wekhabohayidreyiti kunye namafutha ukuba ke inyama luvo. Luquka ngobuchopho kunye umnqonqo ezincancisayo. Glycolipids nazo zifumaneka nokwakheka inwebu cell. Umzekelo, iintsholongwane bayabandakanyeka lwabafowunelwa iseli-cell. Ezinye zezi zinto ukuba buhlungu ezisegazini (izinto zokuva inkqubo lwegazi Landsteiner AB0). Xa iiseli izilwanyana, izityalo kunye nabantu, ngaphandle glycolipids, zikhona yaye abahlukene iimolekyuli namanqatha. Senza ikakhulu umsebenzi amandla. Phezu cleavage ka yegram enye namanqatha 38.9 kJ wamandla uyakhululwa. umsebenzi structure (yinxalenye iseli inwebu) ukuya lipids nazo ebonakala. Ngoko ke, le misebenzi yenziwa iicarbohydrate kunye namafutha. indima yabo umzimba liphezulu kakhulu.

Indima carbohydrate kunye lipids emzimbeni

Xa iiseli abantu kunye nezilwanyana ibonakala interconversions of polysaccharides kunye namafutha ezenzeka ngenxa ukutya. Oosonzululwazi kunye zokudla bafumanisa ukuba inani ngokugqithisileyo ukutya okunesitatshi kukhokelela beqokelela ngamanqatha. Ukuba umntu ukuphazamiseka zepancreas ngokwemiqathango bodwa okanye amylase ikhokela uhleli ungenzi nto, ubunzima lingaba likhulu kakhulu. Kuhle ukukhumbula ukuba carbohydrate-rich ukutya idilikile ikakhulu kwi duodenum ibe glucose. Yena ithathe emithanjeni i villi yethumbu ezincinane ifakwe esibindini kunye nemisipha glycogen. Exchange ezininzi kwezinto emzimbeni, kokukhona kubhaliwe wohlukana glucose. ke ngoko usetyenziswa iiseli ephambili, izinto ezingenamandla. Olu lwazi inika impendulo yombuzo indima edlalwe carbohydrate, umzimba womntu.

Meaning of glycoproteins

Zithako beli qela yezinto kumelwa carbohydrate ezintsonkothileyo + protini. Ewe kuthiwa glycoconjugates. Le izoba, iihomoni, ndizayo isakhiwo. izifundo kwemichiza Latest ubaseke ukuba glycoproteins baqalisa ukutshintsha lokuzalwa isakhiwo sayo (zendalo), oko kukhokelela kuphuhliso ezi zifo ezinzima ezifana nombefu, isifo samathambo, umhlaza. Indima glycoconjugates kwi nethe yeseli uphezulu. Umzekelo, interferon zinqanda phindo iintsholongwane, immunoglobulins ukukhusela umzimba xa ulele. iiproteni igazi kwakhona ngamalungu eli qela yezinto. Zinika iipropati ukhuselo kunye kumthamo. Yonke imisebenzi ingentla kuqinisekiswa yi kukuba indima komzimba wekhabohayidreyiti kwi umzimba ezahlukeneyo kubaluleke kakhulu.

Phi kwaye akhiwa ngayo carbohydrate

zabathengisi ezinkulu iswekile ezilula kunye nezintsonkothileyo - isityalo eluhlaza: ulele, ibihlungu ephezulu, gymnosperms nezidubula. Bonke ziqulathe iiseli yiklorofili mbala. Nguye yinxalenye thylakoid - izakhiwo ze chloroplasts. Isazinzulu Russian KA Timiryazev wafunda inkqubo yefotosinthesis, neziphumo carbohydrate ukwakheka. Indima carbohydrate umzimba isityalo ukuqokelelela istatshi iziqhamo, iimbewu kunye neebhalbhu, oko kukuthi, ezi zivamvo kwezityalo. indlela photosynthesis kunokuba nzima yaye iquka uthotho abasabela enzymatic ukuba zenzeke apha ukukhanya ebumnyameni. Glucose ukuba kuhlelwe ukusuka carbon dioxide phantsi amanyathelo enqanda. eziphilayo Heterotrophic sebenzisa izityalo eluhlaza njengomthombo wokutya namandla. Ngoko ke, izityalo ezi ikhonkco yokuqala zonke amatyathanga ukutya yaye kuthiwa zabavelisi.

Iiseli ze heterotrophic eziphilayo carbohydrate ukufaka kulo amajelo ezigudileyo (agranular) reticulum endoplasmic. Emva koko zisetyenziswa izinto amandla zokwakha. Xa plant cells carbohydrate Ukongezelela, kwasekwa i-Golgi, uze emva koko uye yokuseka udonga iseli cellulosic. Xa inkqubo ukwetyisa compound zezilwanyana ezinomqolo zizityebi iicarbohydrate, ngokomkhethe idilikile emlonyeni kunye nesisu. dissimilation Main ukusabela ebonakala duodenum. Njengoko limi incindi pancreatic equlethe amylase transcriptase ukuba lusicande tashi ku glucose. Njengokuba sele nditshilo ngaphambili, iswekile ifunxwe kulo igazi emathunjini amancinci kwaye esizigubungeleyo zonke iiseli. Apha asisetyenziswa njengomthombo wamandla kunye nezinto noshowo. Oku kuchaza indima iicarbohydrate eliyidlalayo emzimbeni.

Nadmembrannye izakhiwo iiseli heterotrophic

Bona uphawu izilwanyana kunye nomngundo. Ukwakheka iikhemikhali kunye nombutho ngemolekyula kwezi zakhiwo zimelwe iikhompawundi ezifana lipids, iiprothini kunye carbohydrate. Indima carbohydrate emzimbeni - oko libandakanyeka ukutya amandla kunye nokwakha nemisipha. Xa iiseli abantu kunye nezilwanyana ube necandelo elithile noshowo ebizwa glycocalyx. Lo maleko kumphezulu obhityileyo ubunjwe glycolipids kunye glycoproteins ezinxulumene ndizayo cytoplasmic. Inika unxibelelwano oluthe ngqo ngaphandle kwe iiseli. Apha kuza imbono zizinto kunye ukugaywa extracellular. Ngenxa iiseli zabo iqokobhe ekudleni babambelele kwezinye kusekwe eli laphu. Le nto ibizwa ngokuba adhesion. Kwakhona faka ukuba "nemisila" neemolekyuli carbohydrate afumaneka kwi kwiseli komhlaba kwaye ephethwe fluid Embi.

Elinye iqela eziphilayo heterotrophic - izixhobo fungi naye abe umphezulu, ebizwa udonga iseli. Oku kuquka iswekile complex - ngechitin, glycogen. Ezinye iintlobo nomngundo ziqulathe carbohydrate ezinyibilikayo ezifana trehalose, ekuthiwa mushroom iswekile.

Kwizilwanyana kwiseli enye ezifana ciliates, umphezulu umaleko - pellicle ikwaqulathe izakhiwo oligosaccharide kunye iiprothini kunye lipids. Abanye pellicle elula ngokwanele kwaye akuthinteli utshintsho ukumila kakuhle emzimbeni. Kodwa kwezinye sikhula kwaye lube namandla iintonga, iphethe zikhusela.

cell Plant udonga

Kwakhona iqulethe izixa ezikhulu carbohydrate, ingakumbi neselulosi ziqokelelwe njengoko iinyanda imicu. Ezi zithinteli NdinguMenzi isakhelo, ndantywiliselwa matrix colloidal. Le ibandakanya ubukhulu becala of oligosaccharides kunye polysaccharides. Iindonga iseli kweeseli zemifuno lignificated. Kulo mzekelo, izithuba phakathi imiqadi azele nezinye carbohydrate neselulosi - lignin. It kwandisa umsebenzi nokuxhasa yeseli ndizayo. Amaxesha amaninzi, ingakumbi izityalo ingaphelelwayo eziziintonga, umaleko ongaphandle equlathe neselulosi camera iziyobisi fat-like - suberin. Oku kuthintela ukungena amanzi esiqwini sesityalo, ngoko iiseli ezenza ngokukhawuleza singafi wayigubungela yi umaleko Yazo.

Ngamafutshane, sibona ukuba eludongeni yeseli lwezityalo namandla inxulumene namafutha. indima yabo phototrophs emzimbeni phantsi ukususela izakhiwo glycolipid zinika umsebenzi axhasayo zokhuselo. Siza kufunda iintlobo carbohydrate, ethile Monera ubukumkani eziphilayo. Oku kuquka prokaryotes, ezifana neentsholongwane. donga lwabo yeseli iqulethe carbohydrate - murein. Kuxhomekeka isakhiwo phezu izixhobo yohlulwe iintsholongwane Igram-HIV kunye gram-negative.

Ubume iqela lesibini inzima kakhulu. Ezi bacterium aye maleko ezimbini: iiplastiki ngqwabalala. Owokuqala iqulethe mucopolysaccharides, umz murein. iimolekyuli alo indlela izakhiwo womnatha enkulu, kusekwe capsule ngeenxa zonke iseli yebhaktiriya. Umaleko yesibini iqulathe peptidoglycan - polysaccharides ezimbaxa kunye neeproteni.

lipopolysaccharides cell udonga iintsholongwane ukubambelela ngokuqinileyo substrates ezahlukeneyo, ezifana izinyo lwawo okanye eukaryotic cell ndizayo. Ukongeza, glycolipids ukukhuthaza adhesion kweeseli iintsholongwane omnye komnye. Ngoko akhiwa, umz, streptococci ikhonkco iklasta staphylococci, koko, ezinye iintlobo prokaryotes babe isifo olongezelelweyo - peplos. Iqulethe kumafa layo polysaccharides kunye ngokulula atshatyalaliswe radiation nzima okanye ngokudibana iikhemikhali ezithile ezifana antibiotics.