Iincwadi zokuqala. Le yokuqala incwadi eshicilelweyo Russian. Incwadi yokuqala eshicilelweyo

Ibali ncwadi umdla kakhulu. Yonke le nto yaqala emva eMesopotamiya malunga namawaka amahlanu eminyaka eyadlulayo. Incwadi yokuqala encinane okudibeneyo mbelukazi mihla. Ezi tablets ubumba apho isicelo imiqondiso baseBhabhiloni ngoonobumba usebenzisa izinti ziloliwe. Uninzi lwezi umqulu yasekhaya ngemvelo, kodwa archeologists Sasinethamsanqa ukuba ufumane inkcazelo ebalulekileyo zembali iziganeko, iintsomi, amavo. Oobawo wabhalela ipleyiti ngasinye amaxesha amabini okanye amathathu, ngokulula sula sibhalwe ngaphambili. Iincwadi zokuqala eBhabhiloni iqela, kwaye maxa wambi amakhulu amaphepha ngodongwe yokuqala, ibekwe kwibhokisi eyenziwe ngeplanga, bakhonza ngemihla yakudala yokubopha.

Of umdla ethile lithala enkulu yokumkani waseAsiriya Ashurbanipal. Yayiyindawo ukugcina amashumi amawaka iincwadi kunye nolwazi kumacandelo ahlukeneyo. Ngelishwa, ukuba baye basinda zonke nezinto ezizodwa.

ezintsha Egyptian

Okwangoku kunzima kakhulu ukufumana umntu owazi akukho nto malunga nenkcubeko kwiYiputa yamandulo. Abaninzi kuthi qatha afike kwaoko yiPapyrus - prototype iphepha. Njengoko wayekhulile ngamanani amakhulu eselunxwemeni zeNayile omkhulu. Zezityalo inqunyulwe ibe ngezithandelo, womile kwaye njo kunye. Emva kokuba zonke ezi zazo ngqangi zibhaqwe ngenyameko amatye ukuba ayinike ngobuqhophololo.

Kakade ke, i-inki ke, akukho mntu wayesazi ukuba kutheni yesandla yokuqala zadalwa kusetyenziswa inks yemifuno. Uhlobo usiba wakhonza njengengcongolo ezibhityileyo. AmaYiputa amandulo iye oluzenzekelayo rekhoda usiba njengeyabo yokuqala. Iingcibi waqala athulule ipeyinti ibe ingcongolo emgongxweni, ngokubonelela umlambo oluqhubekayo lwe-inki prototype.

Ukunenzela lula, incwadi ngqangi ekupheleni kwe tape saqhotyoshelwa uluthi, yaye nxeba umqulu ngokwayo. Wood okanye isikhumba amatyala munye.

Egypt awuwodwa ...

Ngokuqhelekileyo, le ncwadi wadalwa nje kuphela kweli lizwe koFaro. AmaNdiya, umzekelo, iincwadi zokuqala eqokelelwe ngamagqabi esundu, ezithi ke ngoko athungwe ngokuchanekileyo ibephakathi ezibophelelayo beenkuni. Ngelishwa, ngenxa imililo amaninzi kunye neentlekele zendalo, ikopi enye baloo maxesha watshabalala.

BaseYurophu bayeka irekhodi yazo yesikhumba. Eli phepha thaca ngere- wentlonze iphathwa ngokukhethekileyo. Wayila Chinese lwephepha ukubhala Emacebeni ezenziwe kwezithungu ngoqalo. Ngokutsho hypothesis omnye (leyo iqinisekiswa kancinci kuphela), abahlali Iinkwenkwezi kungarhoxiswa oonobumba usebenzisa amaqhina abotshelelweyo ngendlela ekhethekileyo. Noko ke, le nguqulo has a lot of ubungqina elingachazwanga, ngoko cinga ukuba iyavakala, asikwazi okwangoku.

Inkoliso imithombo zithi ukuba awuqingqe iphepha - Cai Lun - wayehlala Japan malunga nekhulu ngonyaka wesihlanu BC. Ukutyhubela iinkulungwane embalwa elandelayo iresiphi leyo ezenziwe ngephepha, kuyimfihlo engqongqo. Kuba ukuxela yayo ezisengozini isohlwayo ezoyikekayo.

Baya emagqabini kulo mzekelo kwaye Arabhu: abameli babantu, phakathi kwabantu bokuqala kumisa iipateni zabo zephepha, embhoxo uguqulelo kakhulu mihla. Le nkcazelo usisiseko wahlamba uboya. Xa kuncanyatheliswe ngabanye sheets wafumana imiqulu elide (ukuya kwiimitha amahlanu).

Emva ukwamkelwa ubuKristu kunye nokudalwa lenqaba ezibhaliweyo Language eRashiya, kakhulu, uye wabona iincwadi ngesandla-ebhaliweyo kuqala.

Inguqu kumatshini

It basungula umatshini wokushicilela encinane kabini e China kunye eYurophu kumaXesha Aphakathi. Ababhali-mbali nangoku Ayifikelelwanga kuvumelana yapapashwa njani yaye xa incwadi yokuqala eshicilelweyo. Ngokutsho kwezinye iingxelo, amaTshayina udale umatshini nizikhathaze 581 BC. Ngokutsho kweminye imithombo, oku kwenzeka phakathi komhla we-936 no-993 ngonyaka th. Kulo mzekelo, incwadi, umhla yokuqala eshicilelweyo indalo, apho kumaxwebhu, yapapashwa ngowe-868. Yaba ikopi ngqo ye-Diamond Sutra Xylographic Buddha.

I baseYurophu yoshicilelo uyise. Le uJohann Guttenberg. Nguye owasungula le umatshini wokushicilela. Ukongeza, Guttenberg wasungula iqhekeza (isiganeko ebalulekileyo kwenzeka ngo-1440). Incwadi yokuqala eshicilelweyo wayengekabi efana kakhulu ukuya ngesandla, kunye neentlobo ngeentlobo kushicilelwa, inshorensi ngokobutyebi ihonjiswe kunye font isitayile. Ekuqaleni bapapasha iincwadi imali eninzi kakhulu, ngenxa yokuba ukudala kwabo nzima ngesandla.

Kwisiqingatha sesibini senkulungwane weshumi elinesihlanu yabalasela ukunwenwa yokushicilela eYurophu. Ngoko ke, ngo-1465 ibisekwe yocweyo eItali. Ngowe-1468, indlu sokushicilela yokuqala yasekwa Switzerland, yaye ngo-1470 - eFransi. Kwiminyaka emithathu kamva - ePoland, Hungary kunye Belgium, kwiminyaka emithathu kamva - kwi-UK kunye Czech Republic. eSweden, yaye kwiminyaka emine - - in Portugal workshop yoshicilelo eDenmark kunye Austria, ngowe-1483, oko yavulwa ngo-1482. Ekuqaleni imarike yoshicilelo, kwaye nalo nabavakalisi kukhuphiswano apho amashumi amabini.

Indlu yoshicilelo idumileyo ngelo xesha wayevela Aldus Manutius - sezifundo odumileyo evela eVenice. Phantsi imisebenzi yakhe yophawu kwapapashwa ababhali ezinkulu ezifana Aristotle, yekaHerodotus, uPlato, Plutarch, Demosthenes kunye Thucydides.

Ngokutsho iindleko zeencwadi lehlile njengoko nokuphucula inkqubo yoshicilelo. Oku negalelo ezisasazwayo yephepha.

I incwadi yokuqala

UDavide yoyiswe - sekhulu VI - ixesha lokuqala isifundo apho imithetho izibalo kunye kwakubhalwa. Okwangoku, kukho i buku yo hlawuleka ku Matenadaran (elinguvimba-ngqangi yamandulo e Yerevan).

Ukuvela lwamaxwebhu birchbark

Incwadi yokuqala eRussia kuxwebhu ezinde yesondo. Kungenxa kwi XI-XV iinkulungwane, ookhokho bethu benikana ulwazi olubhalwe phantsi. Abembi bezinto zakudala kuqala unethamsanqa ngokwaneleyo ukubona amaxolo ezinde ngowe-1951 e-Novgorod. AV Artsiholovsky waya hambo odumileyo zakudala.

Iileta phina kwi sihlahla, usebenzisa ezibukhali zesinyithi okanye wand ithambo (pisalom). Amaxwebhu birchbark Uninzi wafumana zincwadi zabucala. Kule leta bantu ezichaphazela imiba yezoqoqosho kunye zasekhaya, ndiyabayala, uchaza imbambano. Ezinye zazo ziqulathe iitekisi ahlekisayo Sasungulwa uqhankqalazo nokuthi feudal, izintlu imisebenzi, iindaba ezivela kwezopolitiko, umyolelo.

Ukususela ngowe-1951 ukuya 1981, oko unyaka yafunyanwa iileta malunga namakhulu amathandathu (uninzi - e Novgorod, kwiimeko ezininzi - e Vitebsk, ESmolensk, Pskov kunye Staraya Russa).

Usebenza abaculi ezaziphila

lo mbhalo-ngqangi obizwa "versification" kwi naseNovosibirsk Institute of History. Waye inikwa zakudala Natalia Zolnikova. Isiseko lombhalo wesandla waba amaxolo silky umsebenzi omhle kakhulu. Nangona kunjalo, oku bento yamandulo, kwaye umsebenzi mihla. INcwadi wadala abemi Old Likholwa ityala, ibekwe kwi Lower Yenisei. Kubonakala ukuba imihla yethu amaxolo isetyenziswe iphepha.

Yesandla e Russia

Incwadi yokuqala Russian, evela usiba nokuxubana amandulo, wabizwa ngokuba "amaphetshana Glagolitic Kiev." Ku wayesithi ukuba wadalwa malunga namawaka kwiminyaka eyadlulayo. Le ncwadi ngqangi Russian midala - "Ostrom Gospel" - lisukela emva kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinanye.

Kokufika iivenkile zoshicilelo

Iincwadi zokuqala eshicilelweyo yaqala ukuvela eRashiya emva 1522 kwaba kulo nyaka baqalisa ukusebenza indlu ushicilelo, ibekwe e Vilnius. Umqalisi izovela yalo Frantsisk Skorina - le enlightener edume Belarusian. Ngaphambi koko, kakade naye amava yazo; wapapasha i "INdumiso" elesithandathu ngo-Agasti 1517. Kwaba e Prague, apho ngelo xesha inkokeli ezinkulu zahlala.

Le yokuqala Incwadi Russian eshicilelweyo

Uhlelo lokuqala yomhla, leyo wakhululwa eRashiya, ubizwa ngokuba "Umpostile." Le ncwadi ibandla, leyo wakhululwa kwikomkhulu ngo-1564. umdali wayo - Ivan Fedorov. Ukongeza, inkqubo ababandakanyekayo Peter Mstislavets (ngoxa wayengumfundi Fedorov). Kuyinto ngonaphakade aba bantu kwimbali njengoko umdali incwadi yokuqala Russian eprintiweyo. ingxenye yayiba kweemakhishithi 268 yokulinganisa Circulation 21h14 cm ngelo xesha an obangel -. A kancinane ngaphantsi kwe amawaka amabini iikopi. Okwangoku wafumana 61 ncwadi.

Ukufundwa yokuqala ngencwadi - ukuba yintoni?

Incwadi yokuqala Russian eshicilelweyo, ngenxa apho ookhokho bethu ubuchule ekufundeni nasekubhaleni, kakhulu, wakhululwa inkosi Ivanom Fedorovym. Oko kwenzeka kwiminyaka engaphezu kwama emine eyadlulayo. Linemali imithetho esisiseko yegrama, kwakunye aphorisms ezifundisayo, amazwi ezilumko neemfundiso.

Ukuvela primer

Le ncwadi kuyo kube yinto enokwenzeka ukufumana ulwazi, baba kakhulu iziqu eRashiya. Ezi, Kakade ke, ibandakanyiwe, yaye kwenziwa. Baba abahleli Moscow inkundla zokushicilela. Incwadi Abantwana yokuqala lipapashwe 1634. igama layo - "primer Slavonic ulwimi, oko kukuthi ekuqaleni iimfundiso detem hotyashe kufundiswa ukufunda iSibhalo." Umbhali yomsebenzi - Basil Burtsev-Protopopov.

Ukudalwa primer yokuqala Russian ezinemifanekiso baxoxa Carion Istomin - monk, utitshala kunye yimbongi. Wenza konke okusemandleni: unobumba ngamnye ikhatshwe ngumfanekiso lwesifundo, kuqalwa le ncwadi. Le ncwadi ivumela ukuba ukufunda Polish, Latin kunye oonobumba isiGrike, akwabakho phantse akukho izicatshulwa kwimixholo yonqulo kuwo. I ezintsha kukuba le ncwadi ilungiselelwe abantwana amadoda namabhinqa ( "abakhonzi 'yaye' intombazana ').

Ukuvela bookplates

I wokuqala Russian eshicilelweyo kunye uphawu eyodwa ebonisa ubulungu kwithala ethile encwadini, ndabona ukukhanya kwinkulungwane elinesibhozo. Ngelo xesha, le ncwadi kunawo liyi babengamahlakani uPetros Enkulu, kuquka Bruce J. kunye D. Golitsyn. Zonke iikopi eziprintiweyo iingqokelela zabo ehonjiswe miniatures Isitampu kunye noyilo bamagama.

ongakhetha mini

Igama le ncwadi yokuqala eshicilelweyo silinganiswa 6.5 ngu iisentimitha 7.5 - "The ubugcisa bokuba funny kwincoko." ikopi Ekhethekileyo yapapashwa ngo-1788. Ngowe-1885 Krylov intsomi umbhali ziye zapapashwa encwadini ubungakanani isitampu zokuposa eqhelekileyo. Ukuseta yoshicilelo entle phantsi kwegama yakhethwa Diamond. Ngaba uyazi ukuba yintoni na igama incwadi yokuqala eshicilelweyo ubungakanani ezincinane, epapashwe eSoviet Union? Yaba siseko RSFSR. Kuye yapapashwa ngowe-1921 e-Kineshma. ubukhulu Book - ezintathu ezinesiqingatha ubude ezintlanu.

Okwangoku, kukho iincwadi ezincinane angaphezu kwekhulu. ukuqokelelwa Biggest - isebenza ngu Pushkin - it iincwadi mahlanu. Ngokwenjenje irekhodi ivesi umthamo ngoko umthamo 0,064 cubic metres. mm. umdali wayo - artist intsomi M. Maslyuk ukusuka Zhmerinka (kummandla Vinnitsa, Ukraine.).

zezinto ezinkulu

Le ncwadi inkulu yamandulo wesandla in Armenian othi "Sermons Mushskogo monastery." Idale kule minyaka mibini idlulileyo - ukususela 1200 kude th-1202. ubunzima ncwadi ngeekhilogram ezingamashumi amabini anesixhenxe enesiqingatha. Size nayo umxhelo - cm 55.5 ukuya 70.5 umzekelo unique iqulathe amaphepha amathandathu ezimbini, nganye kuzo uye ngenyanga enye ithole endala isikhumba .. Ngowe-1204 lo mbhalo-ngqangi ibiwe i Seljuks. bungaphezu kweekhilogram ezingamawaka amane eedarike ziqokelelwe lokuhlawulela kwabahlali ezininzi kwiilali Armenian (Qaphela: yedrarhma elingana enye ukuya 4,65 g zesilivere). Ngaphezu kweminyaka engamakhulu asixhenxe, lo wesandla kwidolophu isigodlo iwuse kwisidudu, in Western Armenia. Ngo-1915 yafudukela Matenadaran igumbi e Yerevan. Kwathi ngenxa kutshabalaliso Turkish, ngenxa apho isiphumo unique umsebenzi wezandla ngokulula kutshatyalaliswa.

itshe Bible

Book ngendlela yokusebenza engaqhelekanga kunokubonwa ngethuba bekutyelelo kuRhulumente Museum of Art, elise eGeorgia. Kudala-dala inkosi eqingqiweyo amabini imifanekiso evela New and Old Testamente ukuba Iizilebhu bamatye. Oku kuphela kwemeko ekungabhalwa. Le bhokisi eyafunyanwa kwilali esiluhlaza Abkhazian Tsebelda.

nesimo sangoku

Ekupheleni koo-zenkulungwane yamashumi amabini kule ncwadi okunene saphawula inguqu olutshintshayo. Oku kungenxa ekuthatheni indawo notshintsho kwezentlalo, ezopolitiko kunye nezoqoqosho Russian. Ngenxa yoko, ushishino zokupapasha ngomnye kwamasebe, apho waqalisa kutshintsho lwezoqoqosho emarikeni. Le ncwadi iye kuthathwa ngokuba yinto yokuba inkqubo yoshishino. Ngoko ke kubaluleke kakhulu ukuba kutheni le nkqubo ezizenzekelayo karhulumente endle inkcubeko kunye ishishini incwadi njengoko yinto abamele elo.

Ngo-1990, upapasho kunye nokusasazwa iincwadi yaba ishishini eliphumelelayo. Le ngcaciso ilula: ilizwe lifumana ukunqongophala nokoyika mpahla. Noko ke, oku akuzange kube kudala. Emva emihlanu kweminyaka, emarikeni kwizinyibilikisi. Abathengi baqala ukukhetha iincwadi ngononophelo olukhulu. Njengoko olu khuphiswano waba indima enkulu kakhulu ukudlala iimpawu ezifana nomgangatho imveliso kunye negama labavelisi kunye abasasazi. Ithuba echaziweyo luphawulwa ekukhuleni isabelo yezihloko iguqulelwe. Ngenxa yoko, xa ababhali 1993 bezinye iintlanga ncwadi phantse amahlanu ekhulwini zonke iimveliso nokupapasha.

Namhlanje kukho umdla abafundi inconstancy '. Ukuba kwixesha eSoviet, imisebenzi umbhali elinye ithandwa ixesha elide, ngoku uluhlu lwe best-abathengisi iyatshintsha ngesantya breakneck. Oku kube negalelo yakhula iintyatyambo iyantlukwano ngokupheleleyo izimvo, wemidla kunye neminqweno yabemi.