Yiyiphi inxaxheba ebuthakathaka kwi-physics?

Ukusebenzisana okunyanzelekileyo yenye yezinto ezine ezisisiseko ezilawula yonke into kwindalo yonke. Eminye emithathu yintlawulelo, i-electromagnetism kunye nokusebenzisana okunamandla. Nangona ezinye iimbutho zihlangene izinto, amandla athathaka adlala indima enkulu ekutshatyalaliswa kwawo.

Ukusebenzisana okunqongqo kunamandla kunamandla, kodwa kusebenza kuphela kumgama omncinane kakhulu. Amandla asenza kwinqanaba le-subatomic kwaye lidlala indima ebalulekileyo ekunikezeni amandla eenkwenkwezi nokudala izinto. Kukwaxanduva lweninzi yemimandla yendalo kwimvelo.

Imfundiso yeFermi

I-physicist yaseItalikhiya u-Enrico Fermi ngo-1933 yavelisa imbono yokuchaza ukubola kwe-beta-inkqubo yokuguqula i-neutron ibe yiproton kunye nokuthutha i-electron, edlalwa ngokubhekiselele kule ngongoma njengengxube ye-beta. Wachaza uhlobo olutsha lwamandla, okubizwa ngokuba yi-intsebenziswano ebuthathaka, eyayijongene nokubola, inkqubo ebalulekileyo yokuguqulwa kwe-neutron ibe yiprotton, i-neutrino, kunye ne-electron, eyachazwa kamva njenge-antineutrino.

UFermi ekuqaleni wayecinga ukuba kwakukho umgama omde kunye nokubamba. Kufuneka uqhagamshelane neengqungquthela ezimbini, ukuze amandla asebenze. Ukususela ngoko, kufumaniswe ukuba ukusebenzisana okubuthathakayo kunenamandla ekhangayo ebonakalisa kumgama omfutshane kakhulu olingana no-0.1% we-proton ububanzi.

Amandla e-Electroweak

Kwiintlungu zokusasaza, inamandla amandla angama-100,000 amaxesha amancinci kunomnye we-electromagnetic. Nangona kunjalo, ngoku kuyaziwa ukuba lilinganayo ngaphakathi kombane, kwaye ezi zimbini ezahlukeneyo zikholelwa ukuba zimele ukubonakaliswa kwamandla asebenzayo enye. Oku kuqinisekiswa yinto yokuba badibanisa ngamandla angaphezu kwe-100 GeV.

Ngamanye amaxesha kuthiwa ukusebenzisana okubuthathaka kubonakaliswa kukubola kwama-molecule. Nangona kunjalo, imikhosi ye-intermolecular ine-electrostatic nature. Baye bafumaniswa nguVan der Waals kwaye babethwala igama lakhe.

Model Model

Ukunqongophala okunyanzelekayo kwi-physics yinxalenye yemodeli eqhelekileyo-imbono yeengqungquthela zokuqala, ezichaza isiseko esisisiseko sombandela, kusetyenziswa isethi yamanani alinganayo. Ngokwale modeli, iinqununu zeplastiki, oko kukuthi, into engayi kuhlulwa ibe ngamacandelo amancinci, iibhloko zakhiwo zendalo yonke.

Enye inxalenye yolu hlobo. Izazinzulu azilindele ukuba khona kwezinto ezincinci, kodwa zijonge. Kukho iintlobo ezintandathu, okanye iintlobo zee quarks. Siwabeka ngokulandelelana kwendoda:

• Phezulu;
• Ngaphantsi;
• Ngqineka;
• Uqiniwe;
• Ziyakulungiswa;
• Nyaniso.

Kwiintlobo ezahlukeneyo, zenza iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeengqungquthela ze-subatomic. Ngokomzekelo, iiproton kunye ne-neutron-iindidi ezinkulu ze- atomic nucleus -consist zintathu zithatha nganye. Ezi zimbini zingaphantsi nezantsi zenza iproton. Iphezulu kunye neyesibini ezantsi zenza i-neutron. Ukutshintsha ibakala le-quark kungatshintsha iproton kwi-neutron, ngoku guqula enye into ibe yinye.

Olunye uhlobo lweengqungquthela zeplastiyali ngu-boson. Ezi ngqungquthela zithwala intsebenziswano, ezibandakanya iimitha zamandla. Iiphoton zihlobo olunye lwe-boson, i-gluons enye. Inye yale mine imikhosi iyiphumo lokutshintshiselana kwamagcisa okusebenzisana. Ukusebenzisana okunamandla kwenziwa nge-gluon, kunye nokusebenzisana kwe-electromagnetic nge-photon. I-Graviton yinto ephethe i-gravity, kodwa ayizange ifumaneke.

W kunye noZ Z bosons

Ulwalamano olubuthathaka luqhutywa yi-W ne-Z bosons. La maqabunga aqikelelwe yiNobel Prize abaphumeleleyo uSteven Weinberg, uSheldon Salam no-Abdus Glashow kwiminyaka engama-60 yekhulu lokugqibela, kwaye bafumana ngo-1983 kwi-European Organisation for Nuclear Research CERN.

I-W-bosons ihlawuliswa ngombane kwaye ibonakaliswe yiimpawu zeW ⁺ (ngokuqinisekileyo zihlawuliswe) kunye ne-W ^- (ityala elibi). I-W-boson iguqula ukubunjwa kweengqungquthela. Ngokukhupha i-W-boson yecala lokusebenzisa umbane, amandla athathaka aguqula uhlobo lwe-quark, ukuguqula iproton kwi-neutron okanye ngokulandelana. Yilokho ebangela i- fusion yenyukliya kwaye yenza inkwenkwezi zitshise.

Ukuphendula ngale ndlela kudala izinto ezinzima kakhulu ekugqibeleni ziphonswe kwi-space nge-supernova ukuqhuma ukuze zibe yinto yokwakha iiplanethi, izityalo, abantu kunye nayo yonke into emhlabeni.

Ukungathathi hlangothi okwangoku

I-Z-boson ayithathi hlangothi yaye ithatha ukungathathi hlangothi kwamanje. Ukubambisana kwayo kunye neengqungquthela kunzima ukubona. Uphando lwezilingo ze-W- ne-Z-bosons kwiminyaka yama-1960 kukhokelela oososayensi kwiingcamango ezidibanisa i-electromagnetic kunye namandla angenawo amandla kwi-electroweak enye. Nangona kunjalo, i-theory yayifuna ukuba i-particle vector ibe nzima, kwaye izazinzulu zesazi ukuba ngokoqobo i-W-boson kufuneka ibe nzima ukuchaza icandelo layo elifutshane. I-theorists ibonisa ubunzima be-W kwiindlela ezingabonakali zibizwa ngokuba yi-Higgs, ebonisa ukuba ubukho be-bosgs yase-Higgs.

Ngo-2012, i-CERN ibike ukuba izazinzulu zisebenzisa i-acceleration enkulu enkulu yehlabathi-i-Large Hadron Collider-yabona inqwanqwa entsha "ehambelana ne-bosgs yaseBiggs."

Ukubola kweBeta

Ulwalamano oluthathaka lubonakalisa kwi-β-decay-inqubo apho iprotton iguqulwa ibe yi-neutron kunye nangona kunjalo. Iyenzeka xa kusekho nucleus ene-neutron ezininzi okanye iiponononi, enye yazo iguqulwa ibe yinye.

Ukubola kweBeta kungaqhutyelwa ngeendlela ezimbini:

1. Kwimeko yokunciphisa i-beta yokubola, ngamanye amaxesha abhaliweyo njenge-β-decay, i-neutron iyahlukana ibe yiprotton, i-antineutrinos kunye ne-electron.
2. Ulwalamano oluthathaka lubonakalisa ukubola kwe-nuclei ye-athomu, ngamanye amaxesha kubhaliwe njenge-β ⁺ ukubola, xa iproton ikwahlukana ibe yi-neutron, i-neutrinos ne-positron.

Enye yezinto ijika ibe yinye xa enye ye-neutron yayo iphendulela ibe yiprotton ngokugqithisa kwe-beta, okanye xa enye yeeprotoni zayo ijika ibe yi-neutron ngokubola kwe-β ⁺ .

Ukubola kwe-beta kabini kwenzeka xa ii-proton ezi-2 kwi-nucleus ziguqulelwa ngokufanayo zibe yi-2 neutron okanye i-vice versa, ngenxa ye-2 i-electron-antineutrinos kunye ne-2 i-particle beta. Ngokubola kwe-beta ye-beta ye-double neutrinoless, i-neutrinos ayifaki.

UkuFowunwa koMbane

Iproton ingajika ibe yi-neutron ngokusebenzisa inkqubo ebizwa ngokuba yi-electron okanye i-K-capture. Xa kunenani eligqithisileyo leeprotoni kwi-nucleus ngokubhekiselele kwinani le-neutron, i-electron, njengomthetho, ivela kwi-shell ye-electron yangaphakathi ibe yinucleus. I-electron ye-orbital ithathwa yi-nucleus yenyama, iimveliso zazo ziyi-nucleus yentombi kunye ne-neutrino. Inombolo ye-athomu ye-nucleus efunyenwe yintombi iyancipha ngo-1, kodwa inani elipheleleyo leeprotoni kunye ne-neutron lihlala lifana.

Impendulo ye-nyukliya

Ukusebenzisana okunyanzelekileyo kuthatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yamandla enyukliya-impendulo eyenza amandla elangeni kunye ne-thermuclear (hydrogen) ibhomu.

Isigaba sokuqala kwi-fusion ye-hydrogen yi-collision ye-proton ezimbini enegunya elaneleyo lokunciphisa ukuxhatshazwa okufanayo ngenxa ye-electromagnetic interaction.

Ukuba zombini iinxalenye zifakwe kunye, ukusebenzisana okunamandla kunokuzibopha. Oku kudala uhlobo olungaqinisekiyo lwe-helium ( ² He), ene-nucleus eneeploni ezimbini, ngokungafani nefom eqinisekileyo ( ⁴ He), ene-neutron ezimbini kunye neeproton ezimbini.

Kwinqanaba elilandelayo, ukusebenzisana okubuthathaka kungena kumdlalo. Ngenxa yobuninzi beeponononi, omnye wabo uhlaselwa yi-beta. Emva koko, ezinye iimpendulo, kubandakanywa ukwakha okuphakathi kunye nokuhlanganiswa kwe- ³ Yena, ekugqibeleni ukwakha isistim ⁴ .