Atom chemistry - a ... Model ka-atom. isakhiwo se-atom

Iingcinga malunga nohlobo kwindawo baqalisa ukuya kutyelela abantu elide phambi kokuba abenzi bemilingo yempucuko mihla. Okokuqala, abantu baye ucingela malunga ubukho amandla athile aphezulu, leyo, babekholwa, esele yonke into. Kodwa pretty kungekudala, iingcali zefilosofi kunye nababingeleli baqalisa ukucinga malunga nento oko, enyanisweni, owona mongo yobukho. Mbono imisiwe, kodwa ngokwembono zembali sazaliseka atomic.

Yintoni i-atom chemistry? Oku, kwakunye nazo zonke izihloko ezinxulumene siza kuxubusha ngayo kweli nqaku. Siyathemba ukuba uya kufumana iimpendulo kwimibuzo yakho yonke.

Owasungula le theory atomic

Apho isifundo chemistry lokuqala uqala? Ulwakhiwo atom - ngowona mxholo. Uze ukhumbule ukuba ukuba igama elithi "atom" liguqulelwe ulwimi lesiGrike njenge "ayahlukahlukenanga". Ngoku, ababhali-mbali abaninzi bakholelwa ukuba le yokuqala ecetywayo ingcamango, wathi amanye amasuntswana amancinane ezibumba yonke into ekhoyo, Democritus. Wayehlala BC ngenkulungwane yesihlanu.

Ngelishwa, iSebe uRhazes ezibalaseleyo phantse nto iyaziwa. Kuye ayifikelelekanga thina na umthombo ebhaliweyo baloo maxesha. Kwaye ngenxa isazi indleko yexesha lakhe, iimbono, kufuneka sifunde kuphela imisebenzi Aristotle, uPlato kunye nezinye iinkcuba zamaGrike.

Ngoko isihloko sethu - "Indlela esakhiwe ngayo esi atom." Xa chemistry, asingabo bonke aba amanqaku aphezulu, kodwa abaninzi khumbula ukuba zonke izigqibo izazinzulu bamandulo zakhiwa kuphela kucingelwe. Democritus wayengekho ngaphandle.

Njengoko Ndandiqiqa Democritus?

logic ngendlela elula kakhulu, kodwa kwangaxeshanye ezikrelekrele. Masithi imela sharpest ehlabathini. Uze uthathe i-apile, umzekelo, ze aqale ayichebe: iziqingatha ezibini ibe yindawo yokuhlala, uzahlule kwakhona ... Xa ilizwi, kungekudala uza kufumana i izilayi omncinane olulingana eqhubeka ukuzahlula uya sele lwenzeke. Apha kuya kuba atom ebumbene. Xa chemistry, le yinto kuqwalaselwa oyinyaniso phantse ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19.

Ukusuka Democritus ukuba izimvo zale mihla

Kufuneka kuqatshelwe ukuba ukususela iingqiqo yamandulo yesiGrike sekuba wahlala igama elinye kuphela "atom". Ngoku wonke schoolchild uyazi ukuba ihlabathi elisingqongileyo wenziwe kakhulu angundoqo kunye nezohlwayo ngakumbi. Ukongeza, ngokwembono bezenzululwazi, ithiyori ye Democritus yaba yinto nje ebalayo kuphela ezingenzeka, ayixhaswa yi ngokupheleleyo akukho bungqina. Noko ke, ngaloo mihla bekungekho iimikroskopu electron, ngoko Makayibonise ngezinye iindlela kwi nzulu ngezinto ibingayi kwenzeke.

Le nkolelo yokuqala Democritus enyanisweni khona lapho le ekhemisi. Bakhawuleza wafumanisa ukuba uninzi izinto aqhekeke abe kumacandelo elula phantsi ngexesha basabela. Ngaphezu koko, bazisa regularities yemichiza kakhulu kwezi nkqubo. Ngoko ke, babona ukuba kuthatha iqhekeza ezisibhozo ubunzima ioksijini ize enye yamanzi - hydrogen (umthetho Avogadro kaThixo).

KumaXesha Aphakathi, nayiphi na imfundiso izinto, kuquka ingcamango Democritus, usasazo kunye nophuhliso ayikwazanga ukufumana konke konke. Kwaye kuphela kwinkulungwane XVIII, izazinzulu ziye kwakhona babuyela kwithiyori atomic. Ngexesha le yemichiza Lavoisier, wethu omkhulu M. V. Lomonosov physics IsiNgesi aneziphiwo D. wayeseDalton (apho siza kuxubusha ngokwahlukileyo), ziye ayinyaniso ngayo wabonisa koogxa babo ubunyani-athom. Kufuneka igxininiswe into yokuba nkqu theory ngenkulungwane ye-18 atomic enakhanyiselwa ngayo ixesha elide iingqiqo ezininzi obalaseleyo elo xesha kuqwalaselwa kakhulu.

Enoba yayiyintoni na, kodwa ezi izazinzulu ezinkulu ziye nalo phambili ingcamango isakhiwo-atom, njengokuba yena ingqalelo enye yamasuntswana ayahlukahlukenanga, ngenxa yonke into.

Ngelishwa, amalinge imichiza akwazi ngokucacileyo ukubonisa ubunyani ukuguquka ezithile atom kwezinye izinto. Ukanti inzululwazi esisiseko kwi ukufunda ubume athom yile chemistry. Athom kunye iimolekyuli ziye zahlolwa ixesha elide, a izazinzulu akrelekrele Russian, ngaphandle ezenza kube nzima ukuba nomfanekiso inzululwazi yanamhlanje.

Imfundiso D. I. Mendeleeva

A indima enkulu kuphuhliso lwe imfundiso atom wadlala D. I. Mendeleev, owathi ngo-1869 wadala inkqubo yakhe brilliant ngamaxesha athile. A lethiyori phambi kuluntu lwezenzululwazi, leyo akazange abagatye nje kuphela, kodwa nokucingela afanelekileyo ezihlobeneyo zonke materialists. Sele ngenkulungwane ye-19, izazinzulu bakwazi ukubonisa ubukho electron. Zonke ezi zinto zifunyanisiweyo kwakhokelela iingqondo kakhulu kwinkulungwane yama-20 ukufunda nzulu atom. Ekuhambeni chemistry eli xesha yayigcwele eninzi obafunyanwa.

Kodwa ke imfundiso Mendeleyev kubalulekile nje kuphela ezi. Kuyinto awukacaci ncam indlela uhlobo atom imichiza ezahlukeneyo. Kodwa sisazinzulu enkulu Russian unako ukubonisa ngokuqiniseka ukuba zonke, ngaphandle kokukhetha, ezinento omnye komnye.

Ivula wayeseDalton

Kodwa ukuze bakwazi ukutolika iinkcukacha ezininzi saa yodwa Dzhon wayeseDalton, ogama lakhe ngonaphakade eyayikrolwe lokufumanisa umthetho ngokwawo. Ngokuqhelekileyo, izazinzulu ziye safunda kuphela yokuziphatha neegesi, kodwa uluhlu umdla kuba banzi kakhulu. Ngo-1808 waqalisa ukupapasha umsebenzi wakhe omtsha esisiseko.

It Daltons kucingelwa ukuba isiqalelo ngasinye imichiza lihambisana atom ethile. Kodwa sisazinzulu, njengoko Democritus kwiinkulungwane ezininzi phambi kwakhe; wayekholwa ukuba akanako ngokupheleleyo. Xa uyilo zayo ezininzi imizobo diagrammatic, apho athom zimelwe ngokohlobo zimise ezilula. Le ngcamango, nesuka kwiminyaka engaphezu kwama-2,500 eyadlulayo, phantse kube namhlanje! Noko ke, kuphela kakhulu kutshanje kuye kwafunyaniswa isakhiwo nzulu ngenene ye atom. Chemistry (Grade 9 ingakumbi) Nanamhlanje kakhulu ekhokelwa yi oneembono avakalisa kuqala ngenkulungwane ye-18.

ukuqinisekisa yolwazi divisibility-athom

Nakuba kunjalo, phantse zonke izazinzulu babekholelwa ukuba atom ukuya ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19 - kumda ngaphaya apho kukho nto. Babecinga ukuba isiseko indalo yonke ngokuchanekileyo na. Oku lula ngenxa ezahlukeneyo experimenti: nokuba ubani athi, kodwa yintoni utshintsho kuphela molecule, ngelixa izinga kunye atom ukwimo akuzange kwenzeke nanye into ayikwazanga kuchazwa nje chemistry. Ubume be-athom carbon, umzekelo, kuhlala ingatshintshanga nakwezona States ezahlukeneyo allotropic.

Ngokufutshane, ixesha elide, kwakungekho ngokupheleleyo akukho data yokwenza ubuncinane ngokungangqalanga waqinisekisa izikrokro ezinye izazinzulu ukuba kukho amanye amasuntswana inkulu kakhulu. Kuphela ngenkulungwane ye-19 (hayi Bulelani ubuncinane ukuya kumava Curies) bekubonakalisiwe ukuba phantsi kweemeko ezithile atom isiqalelo enye kuguqulwa enye. Ezi zinto zenza isiseko iingcamango mihla malunga emhlabeni.

Ezomileyo, puddings

Ngowe-1897, eGeorge. Thomson, IsiNgesi physics, kwafunyaniswa ukuba nayiphi atom kukho umlinganiselo othile amasuntswana kakubi ityala, leyo ebizwa kwakhona "electron". Sele ngo-1904, i-nzulu wadala imodeli yokuqala atomic, nto leyo eyaziwa ngcono phantsi isiqu "Plum pudding". Eli gama libonisa ngokuchanileyo uqobo. Ngokusekelwe kwithiyori Thomson ngayo atom chemistry - yinto "inqanawa" kunye kwentlawulo ngokufanayo isasazwe kulo electron.

Qaphela ukuba lo mfuziselo ejikeleza nkqu kwinkulungwane yama-20. Kamva afika ukuba kuphosakele ngokupheleleyo. Sekunjalo, yaba lilinge lokuqala abazi umntu (kwaye qho yenzululwazi) lokuphinda i sekuba ezisingqongileyo, sibonelela umfuziselo-atom; kakhulu ilula kwaye icacile.

kukubuka Curie

Kukholelwa ukuba esi sibini, Pierre and uMariya Kyuri wabeka isiseko nokwakheka atomic. Kakade ke, igalelo kula madoda buchopho, enyanisweni amadini impilo yakhe nobomi, akanako phantsi, kodwa amava abo kude ngakumbi esisiseko. Phantse ngaxeshanye Rutherford baba ukuba atom - kakhulu ngakumbi entsonkothileyo kunye nesakhiwo owahlukeneyo. Le ngxaki yokusetyenziswa imisebe, leyo behlola, loo nto ngayo kunye nentetho.

Ekuqaleni kuka-1898 Maria lapapasha inqaku lokuqala enikelwe kwimitha. Kungekudala uMariya Per Kyuri lubonise ukuba umxube iikhompawundi ikhlorini of uranium kunye Radium aqalile ukuvela kwezinye izinto, ubukho apho akaboni ukwakheka esemthethweni. Ulwakhiwo atom sele iqalile ukusukela ukuba ukuhlola ngokunyaniseka.

"Yemihlaba" indlela

Ekugqibeleni uRutherford wagqiba ukwenza heavy metal atom bombardment α-amasuntswana (helium insimbi ngokupheleleyo). Isazinzulu kanye wacebisa ukuba electron ukukhanya akanako ukutshintsha isikhokelo intshukumo yamasuntswana. Ngako oko, usasazeko kungabangela kuphela amanye amacandelo nzima ezinokuthi equlethwe ngumongo atom. Ngoko nangoko, siphawula ukuba Rutherford yokuqala akazange athi ukutshintsha i "pudding" imfundiso. Le modeli ye atom kwakujongwa lihle.

Ngako oko kubangela ukuba phantse zonke amasuntswana ngaphandle iingxaki idlule umaleko obhityileyo zesilivere, akukho bamangaliswa. Loo nto nje ngokukhawuleza kwacaca ukuba ezinye athom helium zaye baphambuke ° nje-30. Ukuba yintoni na kuthi ngelo xesha chemistry. Ukwakhiwa ngokutsho Thomson atom kuzakuthathwa ukusasazwa efanayo electron. Kodwa ke kuchasene ngokucacileyo ukuya nesenzeko saphawula.

Inqabile kakhulu, kodwa amanye amasuntswana Yaphaphazela kwi-engile, nokuba 180 °. Rutherford waba wayedideke zinzulu. Ngapha koko, oku kabukhali bemphikisa i "pudding", isimangalo apho bekumele ukuba (njengako kwithiyori Thomson) ngokulungelelana ezisasaziweyo. Ngenxa yoko, iziza ezimagqagala ityala ukuze alwe helium insimbi, bebengekho.

Ziziphi izigqibo kufika Rutherford?

Ezi meko zabangela ukuba izazinzulu ukucinga ukuba atom ubukhulu becala engenanto kwaye kuphela iziko ingqalelo imfundo nentlawulo ezakhayo - i kernel. Kwaye kukho ke imodeli langa le-atom, leyo postulates oku kulandelayo:

• Njengokuba sele sitshilo, ukuba ibekwe umbindi undoqo, kwaye umthamo walo (xa kuthelekiswa kubungakanani atom ngokwayo) ayinamsebenzi.
• Phantse bonke ubunzima atom, kwakunye nazo zonke intlawulo HIV zifumaneka ngumongo.
• Elektroni ezigxile kuyo. Kubalulekile ukuba inani labo lilingana intlawulo ezintle.

theory zango

Bonke kuya kuba kuhle, kodwa umfuziselo atom ayichazi ukomelela yazo emangalisayo. Kufuneka kukhunjulwe ukuba electron ukusuka kwindawo yazo kunye ukukhawulezisa olukhulu. Xa yonke imithetho electrodynamics into ngokuhamba kwexesha, kufuneka ingazehlela ngokwayo. Ukuba uthathe ingqalelo we the postulates ka Newton Maxwell, electron ngokubanzi kufuneka ivuthu- undoqo, ngathi sisichotho emhlabeni.

Kakade ke, akukho nto loo eyenzekayo ngokwenene. Nayiphi atom kuphela kakhulu ukumelana, kodwa kungakho ixesha kakhulu unlimited, elingamiwe radiation akayi kumka. Oku kukungangqineli wacaciswa kukuba ukuya microworld sizama ukusebenzisa imithetho isebenza kuphela malunga ubucukubhede yamandulo. Ukufumanisa ukuba atomic-isikali nesenzeko ayisayi kusebenza kwaphela. Kwaye ngenxa yokuba isakhiwo-atom (Chemistry, iBakala 11) ababhali textbook zama ukuchaza kangangoko kunokwenzeka ngamazwi alula.

imfundiso Bohr kaThixo

yamachiza Danish Niels Bohr singqiniwe ukuba kwi sekuba akakwazi ngokuxhomekeke kwimithetho efanayo, izibonelelo zazo kusebenza izinto ongatshintshiyo. Yaba iingcinga zakhe ukuba sekuba of "ekhokelwa" kuphela yimithetho quantum. Kakade ke, ngoko kwakungekho ithiyori umyinge ngokwayo, kodwa eneneni Janai waqalisa ukhokho wakhe, uvakalisa iingcinga zabo ngohlobo postulates ezintathu "wasindisa" i-atom, oko bekuza kubulawa, ukuba uthe "waphila" ngokutsho kwithiyori uRutherford. Oku le ngcamango Dane yaba isiseko bonke ubucukubhede quantum.

postulates Bohr kaThixo

• Eyokuqala kwezi efunda nayiphi na inkqubo-atom kunokuba kuphela States ezithile atom, yaye nganye kuzo ixabiso elithile uphawu-eneji (E). Ukuba isimo umile lwe-atom (cwaka), ngoko ayikhuphi asinakukuqinisekisa.
• Le postulate yesibini ithi ukuba ukukhutshwa ukukhanya kwenzeka kuphela kwimeko yenguqu bekwimo namandla ngakumbi ngendlela ulinganisele. Ngako oko, amandla sakhulula lilingana umahluko lwamaxabiso phakathi kwamazwe amabini zokubhala.

Niels Bohr model ye atom

Scientist wacebisa ngo-1913 yi imfundiso semiclassical. Kuyaphawuleka ukuba isiseko salo, wabeka imodeli langa ka Rutherford, nje phambi kokuba wachaza atom kweziyobisi. Sele bathi izibalo ubucukubhede classical koko uRutherford: ngokusekelwe kuyo, bekucingelwa ukuba ixesha electron wayeqinisekile ukuba kuwa phezu komhlaba atom.

Ukuze "ukuhambahamba" le ntswela, ISAZINZULU uze yokwamkelwa okhethekileyo. kubume bayo usendleleni yokuba ziveza amandla (oko bekufanele ukuba akhokele ukuya ukuwa kwabo), electron nga ihamba na okuwo ethile. Xa uhamba nabanye trajectories zabo athom imichiza ngezindlu ahlale ukwimeko kwisixando sokwenziwa. Ngokutsho kwithiyori Bohr kaThixo, omise ezinjalo abo ubuninzi indawo intshukumo leyo wayelingana rhoqo Planck kaThixo.

Imfundiso quantum yesakhiwo atomic

Njengokuba besesitshilo, ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, kule khosi e-worldwork theory quantum lwesakhiwo atomic. Chemistry kwiminyaka yakutshanje ekhokelwa kuphela ngayo. Oku kusekelwe elikuwo ezine esisiseko.

1. Okokuqala, i-mbini (corpuscular-wave nature) electron ngokwayo. Ngamafutshane, kwisuntswana liziphatha nendlela into eziphathekayo (a corpuscle), kwaye zibe ngumtshangatshangiso. Njengoko kwisuntswana kukho intlawulo ethile kunye nobunzima. Ukukwazi electron ukuya diffraction efana kunye ngamaza yamandulo. Le ubude efanayo ngumtshangatshangiso (λ) kunye yamasuntswana Velocity (v) sihlobene omnye komnye yi de ezizodwa Broglie ngokunxulumene: λ = h / MV. Njengoko unokuthekelela, m - ubunzima electron.

2. zilungelelanise sesiqhelo ze amasuntswana ukulinganisa ngobuciko ingundoqo akunakwenzeka ngokupheleleyo. I ngokucokisekileyo ngakumbi uzimisele ukuququzelela, kokukhona ukungaqiniseki uqina. Njengoko, ke, vice versa. Le nto ibizwa ngokuba Heisenberg ukungaqiniseki, nabanako oluvakaliswe ngokunxulumene ilandelayo: Δx ∙ m ∙ Δv> z / 2. Delta X (Δh) wavakalisa ukungaqiniseki indawo ilungelelanise kwisithuba. Ngako oko, Delta V (Δv) imele mpazamo ngesantya.

3. Ngokwahlukileyo kuzo zonke inkolelo ngaphambili ethandwayo, electron musa udlule nokujikeleza ezichazwe njengesivumelwano koololiwe onezi. theory Quantum uthi ovela banokuba nayiphi na indawo esithubeni, kodwa amathuba oku ezahlukeneyo kwisigaba ngasinye.

Inxalenye isithuba ngqo ijikeleza ngumongo atom apho eli linokuba yi elininzi ke, ngokuba Orbital. Isakhiwo chemistry yanamhlanje kweqokobhe electron-athom Uphando lo mbono. Kakade ke, izikolo bafundiswa unikezelo olululo elektroni ngokusebenzisa imigangatho, kodwa, mhlawumbi, eneneni, ahluke ngendlela eyahlukileyo.

4. I-core uquka atom nucleons (protons kunye neutron). Inani lothotho inani le element lwezakhi ibonisa inani protons yaseburhulumenteni, kwaye inani protons kunye neutron lilingana ezinobunzima atomic. Apha ukucacisa indlela emayenziwe ngayo atom isiqalo chemistry namhlanje.

Abaseki wokulungisa quantum

Phawula izazinzulu owenza igalelo kakhulu kuphuhliso lweli candelo ebalulekileyo: yamachiza French Louis de Broglie, Heisenberg German, Austria, Schrodinger, i eliNgesi Dirac. Bonke aba bantu baye kamva imbasa Prize Nobel.

Njengokuba kude njengokuba kwesi sicwangciso waya chemistry? Isakhiwo eekhemikhali kwi-atom, inkoliso yabo minyaka yayigqalwa elula ngokwaneleyo: abaninzi kuphela ngo-1947 ekugqibeleni babona ubunyani kubukho amasuntswana asisiqalelo.

ezinye izigqibo

Ngokuqhelekileyo, xa uyila ithiyori umyinge wayengekho ngaphandle zezibalo, njengoko zonke ezi nkqubo kungaba ibalwe kuphela ukusetyenziswa ukubala ezintsonkothileyo. Kodwa ubunzima loqobo alinjalo ingongoma. Iinkqubo ukuba zichazwe ngalo mbono, ifumaneka kuphela ezingqondweni zethu, nakuba zonke ubuchwepheshe lwenzululwazi mihla, kodwa lengqondo.

Akukho mntu, nokuba abanye Mhlawumbi iinkqubo sekuba, njengoko wayengayithandi zonke nesenzeko ukuba nizenze macrocosm. Khawucinge nje: ezifunyaniswe zakutshanje ukunika isizathu ukucinga ukuba kukho quarks, neutrinos kunye nezinye amasuntswana ezisisiseko kwi-ledayimenshini ezilithoba (!). Njengoko umntu ohlala isithuba-ntathu, Unga malunga ukuchaza indlela yokuziphatha kwabo?

Okwangoku, sinako sithembele kuphela kwi izibalo kunye namandla iikhompyutha mihla, nto leyo, mhlawumbi, aya kusetyenziselwa Ukulinganisa micro-ihlabathi. Ngokuphawulekayo abanceda chemistry: atomic isakhiwo ngokuqinisekileyo ziya kuhlaziywa, emva kokuba izazinzulu kutshanje ukusebenza kule intsimi, wabika sohlobo olutsha bond chemical.

Ingcamango yakutshanje isakhiwo atom

Ukuba ufunda ngenyameko konke oku kungentla, mhlawumbi aya kuba nako ukuxela ukuba zeziphi yanamhlanje umfanekiso ubume athom mbandela. Kodwa siza achaze: Kuthi modified theory of Rutherford, zincediswa iziyalezo gqitha ka Niels Bohr. Ngamafutshane, namhlanje kucingwa ukuba electron ukusuka kwindawo umbhodamo, iindlela luzizi ngeenxa ngumongo, elenziwe ngabantu neutron kunye protons. Inxalenye isithuba ngeenxa zonke, apho electron kungenzeka isahlakalo kuthiwa Orbital.

Nangona kungenakwenzeka ukuba kuthi kanye iza kutshintsha njani indlela esiyiqonda ngayo isakhiwo atom kwixesha elizayo. Yonke imihla, oosonzululwazi abasebenza kwi ukungena kwi iimfihlelo sekuba: i LHC (Esibanzi Hadron Collider), i-Nobel Prize yemvelo - konke oku kubangelwa idatha yesaveyi.

Kodwa ngoku asinakukwazi ngqondweni kunye umfanekiso omalunga into nangoku ukufihla atom. Kucacile nje ukuba atom ngokwawo phezu kwisikali sekuba - isakhiwo omkhulu indlu, apho kuviwa ngaphandle kumgangatho wokuqala, yaye ngoko akukho ngokupheleleyo. Phantse wonke unyaka kukho iingxelo malunga ithuba lokuvula ngakumbi amasuntswana ezitsha sabaqalayo. Xa inkqubo yophononongo-athom ziya ugqibile ngokupheleleyo, uya bangakhuphi ukuqikelela enye namhlanje.

Kwanele ukuba ndithi iingcinga zethu baqalisa ukutshintsha kuphela ngo-1947 xa ebizwa njalo-V-amasuntswana zisaqala. Ngaphambi koku, abantu nzulu kancinane kuphela ingcamango apho ngenkulungwane ye-19 yaba chemistry esekelwe. Ubume Atom - a ukusonjululwa iphazili umdla leyo ahlala iingqondo ilungileyo ebantwini.